fall into something. If the place is mentioned, it appears in the dative with ev, though analogy would lead you to expect the accusative with εις. Consequently the Greeks said τιθέναι, κατατιθεναι εν νηι, εν ταφῳ; τιθεναι εν χερσιν ; τιθεναι εν -στηλη, to set on a pillar; τιθεναι εν τοις δικαιοις, to place among (or in the class of the just; εν τοις φιλοσοφοις τιθέναι, to reckon among philosophers; 80, βαλειν ενι ποντῳ, to cast into the sea; καθίζειν εν έδρα, to place on a seat; δησαι εν δεσμῳ, to bind in chains. The preposition επι, with the genitive or the dative, is sometimes used with these verbs; e.g. καθίζειν επι θρονου, κατατιθεναι επι τῆς γῆς, καταπίπτειν επι γῆς; and in the poets, επι γη πιπτειν, καταπιπτειν, τιθεναι ἔπι γουνασιν, επι φρεσιν. In English we often employ in where into would analogically seem required. Thus we say, "to fall in love;' ” “ he took the book in his hand.” By attention to the renderings of the prepositions in the examples just given, you will learn how impossible it is, consistently with the preservation of the English idiom, to adhere to one English representative, or, in other words, to limit yourself to one English meaning, of a Greek preposition. Er denotes in, this is its fundamental signification ; but above it is of necessity rendered on, among, and into ; and, as found in τιθεναι εν νηι, would have to be translated on board of. You must ever bear in mind, that at the best one language is only an imperfect picture of another. You must also be told that you receive instructions in English | to enable you not to turn Greek into English so much as to read English in Greek, or rather to read Greek in Greek. Then only will you thoroughly understand a language when you read its literature without any medium whatever. To resume: With verbs which denote going to and arriving at a place, you will often find ε with the genitive, in the poets with the dative, whereby it is intimated that in the writer's mind a tarrying at was consequent on the reaching of a place. Very common, therefore, are forms such as ιέναι, απιεναι, κομίζεσθαι, αναχωρεῖν, αποχωρεῖν, πλεῖν, αποπλεῖν, φεύγειν επ' οίκου, επ Αθηνών, επι Σαλαμῖνος; and especially επι, with the geniive used of names of cities and islands, as ἡ επι Βαβυλῶνος ὁδος, etc. ; so, poetically, ιθυνειν ίππους επι τινι, ορμᾶσθαι επ' ανδρασιν, επ' αλληλοισιν ιεναι, οι ορουειν, and the like. The place at which anything happens is sometimes represented by the Greeks as that towards which any one proceeds, the process rather than the result being prominent in the thoughts. This peculiarity is exemplified in παρεῖναι and παραγιγνεσθαι used with εις and an accusative, as παρείναι εις τινα τοπον, to be present at a certain place; παρεῖναι επι το βῆμα, to ascend the speaking place (the rostrum (rostra ), or what in French is called the tribune): συλλεγεσθαι εις χωρίον, to assemble at a place; συνελθειν εἰς ἑν οι εις ταύτον, to meet in one spot; αποβαίνειν ες χωριον, το land at a place. With verbs which signify a spreading in space, the Greeks use εις, with an accusative. Such verbs are, διαδιδοναι, διασπειρειν, etc. ; as διαδιδοναι εις την πολιν, to spread over the city. 'The relation of movement or extension from a place is often used by the Greeks where in English we conceive of the relation implied in at or on, and consequently they employ ε and aro in such instances; as with verbs signifying to hang, to suspend, e.g. κρεμασθαι εκ τινος, to hang on something; κρεμαννύναι εκ τινος, to suspend from; ανάπτειν εκ τινος, το attach to; also, απο τινος, το bind to. The same thing takes place with general indications of place, as εκ δεξιας, on the right hand ; εξ αριστερας, on the left hand ; εκ πλαγίου, on the Hank; εκ του εναντίου, opposite, on the opposite side. If a local indication is annexed attributively to the subject or the object, and the verb is of that kind which denotes a removal from a place or an operation from a point, the Greeks employ the prepositions which correspond to that relation, namely, εκ and απο (rarely παρα) with the genitive. In such cases we, in English, should use in, or on, or at: e.g. οἱ εκ της πόλεως εξῆλθον those in the city went out. τους εκ του τειχους στρατιωτας εξέβαλον The proper place, as indeed the name (paæ, before, and pono, I put) indicates, of the preposition, is immediately before the There are, however, some deviations. noun. The preposition sometimes comes after the noun. This is very common in poetry. In prose the deviation is found chiefy with ένεκα; sometimes with περι, in connexion with the genitive, e.g. ήμων ένεκα, on our account ; τουτου ένεκα, on that account; σοφίας περι, concerning wisdom. Also ανευ stands after the relative pronoun in the genitive case, ών ανευ. If the substantive to which the preposition belongs is accompanied by an attribute, the preposition is put between the two, frequently in poetry, rarely in prose; e.g. ουδεν δι' αλλο, on no other account ; χρονον επι πολύν, for a long time. Between the preposition and its case, there are interposed connective or determinative particles, which cannot stand at the beginning of a sentence; such as μεν, δε, τε, οὖν, τοινον, γαρ, γε, δη, e.g. εν μεν τη δημοκρατιᾳ, in the democracy ; παρα δε τοις άλλοις, with the rest; προς τε το μελλον, in regard to the future ; εν γαρ ειρηνη, in peace ; κατα γε το δυνατον, at least as far as possible; πολλῶν δη οὖν ένεκεν, for many redsons ; αρετῆς οὖν περι, concerning virtue, then. Other words also, which are used parenthetically, may be interposed between a preposition and its case; as οἶμαι, Ι think; and ώς έπος ειπείν, so to say; e.g. εν οἶμαι πολλοῖς, probably in many ; παρα γαρ οἶμαι τους νόμους, contrary to the lawe, I think. In the connexion of several ideas, words depending on the same preposition require the preposition to be repeated before each if there is a strong contrast between them, or if the preposition is used emphatically; but not otherwise. αγυμναστως εχειν προς τε ψυχη και θαλπη The preposition is repeated with relatives, and with nouns in apposition, when the two members are expressly separated from each other; especially when the relative clause preceden the demonstrative: e.g. ουκ εστι συντομωτερα οδος περι ών αν βονλη δοκεῖν φρόνιμος there is not a more ready way than to be wise είναι η το γενεσθαι περι τουτων φρονιμον in those things in which you wish to appear wise. visit us as friends. EXERCISES.-GREEK-ENGLISH. God Examples. lour of the French L'amore di Dio, the love of | Il valore dei Francesi, the va 1 domo di Firenze, the cathe- I dente di giudizio spunta tar dral of Florence I futti del mare, the waves of di, the tooth of wisdom springs late Τα τῶν Αιγυπτιων πλοῖα ανα μεν τον ποταμον ου δύνανται πλεῖν ην μη λαμπρος ανεμος επεχε, εκ γῆς δε παρέλκεται. Οἱ πολεμιοι φεύγουσιν ανα κράτος. Οἱ Πέρσαι διδάσκουσι τους παιδας και σωφροσυνην· μέγα δε συμβάλλεται εις το μανθάνειν σωφρονεῖν αυτους, ότι και τους πρεσβυτέρους ὁρῶσιν ανα πᾶσαν ἡμεραν σωφρονας διαγοντας. Κλέαρχος, ώςπερ εις αλλην τινα ἡδονην, ηθελε δαπανᾶν εις πόλεμον, οὕτω φιλοπόλεμος ἦν. Κύρος εξελαύνει επι τον Χαλον ποταμον· αἱ δε κῶμαι, εν αις εσκήνουν, Παρυσάτιδος ἦσαν, εις ζωνην δεδομεναι. Ενεβαλλον εις την Αττικήν στρατῳ μεγαλῳ Λακεδαιμόνιοι μετα των συμ- La chiesa di S. Paolo, Saint | La figlia del re, μάχων, Αρχιδάμου τοῦ βασιλεως ἡγουμενου. Χωρια σκουν Paul's church daughter ισχυρα οἱ Τασχοι, εν οἷς και τα επιτήδεια παντα εἶχον. Κῦρος | Il palazzo di S. Giacomo, Saint | I guanti della moglie del maesεπαιδεύθη εν Περσῶν νομοις. Το εμον σῶμα, όταν τελευτήσω, tro di caso del fratello del re, the king's brother's μητε εν χρυσῷ θῆτε, μήτε εν αργυρῳ, μητε εν αλλῳ μηδενι, αλλά steward's wife's gloves τῇ γῇ ὡς ταχιστα αποδοτεί Οἱ τριακοτα εβοηθουν τους Ελευ Rule 15.-If, in English, a noun is in the possessive case, and followed by another noun, in Italian the former is placed after the latter, preceded by di, del, dello, della, or dei, etc. Examples. the king's Le James's palace leggi del Gran-Duca_di Tos- Rule 16.-When two nouns are joined together in English, Vedo una casa di mattoni, I see | E un dio di legno, it is a Ecco la statua di marmo, behold Datemi un orologio d'oro, give OF ADJECTIVES. Rule 17.-The Adjective, in Italian, agrees in gender and number with the substantive to which it refers. σινίοις ξυν τοῖς Λακωνικοῖς και ξυν τοῖς ἱππεῦσι. Πειρᾶσθαι Examples. chirurgo del Signor Anna è | Io non feci parola di quella mia Tutti i giorni non possono essere Dio not speak of my ridiculous adventure ti benedica amorosa faneiulla! God bless you, loving child! Oh che belle parabole! oh, what fine parables! Rule 18.-Two or more substantives of different genders require the adjective in the plural masculine. Examples. ἑξήκοντα επι Σαμου. Ου παρα μητρι σιτοῦνται οἱ των Περσών Un ragazzo, e una ragazza cat. ENGLISH-GREEK. The soldiers marched up the country. The soldiers marched down the hill. The soldiers marched over the mountains. The soldiers sat down alongside the walls. The soldiers marched from Athens to Marathon. The soldiers fought at Marathon. The soldiers fought bravely for their country. The soldiers fought against the enemy. The soldiers were drawn out in battle array. One soldier died for another. The soldiers had helmets on their heads. The soldiers sailed up the sea to Salamis. The soldiers sailed down the sea to Rome. The soldiers were instructed in the laws of their country. The soldiers, together with the allies, entered the city. The soldiers came out of the city and were dispersed over the land. LESSONS IN ITALIAN GRAMMAR.-No. L. SYNTAX.-Continued. OF NOUNS. Rule 14.-When two nouns in English are united by the preposition of, di is used before the latter, if it requires no article; but if it does. it is preceded by del, dello, della. tare onori, e gloria nuova, they refuse an opportunity of gaining new honours and glory Egli avea la mano e il cappello rosso, he had a red hand and hat Ecco l'affetto e la pietà materna, behold the maternal tenderness and piety E molti prieghi, e promesse gran- in vain Rule 24.-The same adjectives, bello, buono, grande, santo, do not lose their last syllable before nouns beginning with an followed by a consonant. Singular. Examples. Bello spozo, fine husband Rule 25.-The adjectives bello, buono, grande, santo, lose their Rule 21.-Italian adjectives are generally placed either be- final vowel before words beginning with a vowel, and take an apostrophe in its place. fore or after their substantives. Examples. Un nobile aspetto, or un aspetto | La nabile, a noble face Un buon amico, or un amico buono, a good friend nuova sposa, or la sposa Il gran male, the great evil Un principe Italiano, an Italian | La lingua Spagnuola, the Spa- Una tavolo quadrata, a square Una forma ovale, an oval form Una chiesa lunga, a long Un sigillo rotondo, a round 3. The state of the elements. Un tempo freddo, cold weather | Un aria salubre, a wholesome air Un fuoco intenso, an intense fire La rosa è più bella della viola, the rose is more beautiful Il maestro è meno dotto dello sco- many is larger and more powerful than Italy Questo libro è migliore del vostro, this book is better than yours Questa camera è più bella della mia, this room is prettier than mine Rule 28.-When than is followed by an article, or a possessive pronoun, it is translated only by di. Examples. Cesare è stato più felice di Pom- | peo, Cæsar was more fortunate than Pompey Vostro padre è più dotto di me, your father is more learned than I Egli è più sciocco di voi, he is less experienced than he Giorgio è più astuto di Pietro, George is more cunning than Peter Rule 29.-When a comparison is made between two adjectives, substantives, or adverbs, following one another, than is expressed by che; and, if there is a verb after than, this conjunction is rendered by che non. Examples. E più prudente che dotto, he | E' meglio tardi che mai, it is better late than never more prudent than is learned Spende più che non guadagna, he spends more than he gains Io scrivo più che non parlo, I write more than I speak Rule 30.-When "as much as," "so as," are employed in a comparison, they must be rendered by quanto. E benchè, potessino far le guerre Egli è il più dotto precettore di leared instructor in Cam- OF NUMERALS. THE CARDINAL NUMBERS. Rule 32.-The Cardinal Numbers are placed either before or after their substantives. Examples. Il pranzo ci è costato cinque franchi per uno, our dinner has cost us five francs each Egli giungerà in Parigi fra quindici giorni, he will ar- E questo castello posto propinquo Vita di Carlo duodecimo, Life | Il secolo di Luigi decimoquarto, La of Charles the Twelfth cattività del pontefice Pio sesto, the captivity of the pontiff Pius the Sixth Ferdinando quarto re di Napoli, Ferdinand the Fourth, king of Naples the age of Louis the Fourteenth imperador Carlo quinto era sovrano delle Spagne, the emperor Charles the Fifth was sovereign of Spain LESSONS IN SPANISH.-No. XX. OF THE PASSIVE VERB. THE passive verb is generally rendered in Spanish by ser, and always when the subject of the verb is acted upon by an agent, that is, when in English it would be accompanied with the preposition by; as, Este discurso fué escrito por Diego, this discourse was written by James. The passive verb must be rendered in Spanish by estar when the past participle is used adjectively, that is, when the subject of the verb does not seem so much to be acted upon by an agent as to have its state or condition described; as, El discurso estuvo bien escrito, | El libro está correjido, the book The passive verb formed by ser is used in Spanish in the for 38. Cappelli ventuno, calze trentuna, María es amada de Cárlos, Mary is loved by Charles. When a mental act or a state of the emotions is not expressed, the passive verb, if it be used, must not be in the present or imperfect of the indicative mood: thus we cannot say, el libro es escrito por un Español, the book is written by a Spaniard, but, el libro ha sido escrito por un Español, the book has been written by a Spaniard. When a mental act or state of the emotions is expressed, the prepositions de or por may be used after the passive verb before the agent; but when a mental act or state of the emotions is not expressed, por only can be used; as, María es amada de (or por) | Todas las cosas fueron hechas Carlos, Mary is beloved por Dios, all things were made by God. by Charles. The reflective pronoun se is often used with verbs of the active voice, which are required to be rendered in English by the passive. OF THE REGIMEN OF VERBS. The object or regimen of the verb is either direct or indirect. The direct regimen is that on which the action immediately falls without the aid of any preposition; as, Doy una pluma, I give a pen. The indirect regimen is that on which the action of the verb cannot fall without the aid of a preposition; as, Dijo á la muger, he-said to the woman. as, This is a very important rule of Spanish syntax. Sometimes the harmony of the sentence requires the a' to be suppressed, especially after the persons of the verb tener, to have, or to possess; as, Tengo un hijo y tres hijas, I-have one son and three daughters. One verb governs another in the infinitive mood; as, Quieren imitarle, they-want to-imitate him. Some verbs, as a general rule, require the preposition a' before the infinitive which they govern; such are those which mean, to attempt, to come, to go, to begin, to devote, to offer, to dare, to serve, to invite, to learn, to teach, to urge, to assist, to call, to advise, to submit, to prepare, to compel, to decide, to remain, and to accustom one's self; as, The above examples literally would be rendered, "the king of that which is evil." to-him it ordered to-give," and "not thyself suffer to overcome When a verb is governed by another in English, and can be rendered in another mood by using the conjunction "that," this latter mood should be employed in Spanish; thus, instead of saying, I think him to be learned, we can say, I think that he is (cr may be) learned; and instead of, I requested him to go, we can say, I requested that he should go; which latter Probó a levantarse, he attempt- Voy a perla, I-am-going to form of construction should generally be adopted in Spanish ; ed to raise himself. see her. Some verbs generally require the preposition de before the infinitive which they govern; such as those which mean, to cease, to be glad, to be ashamed, to resolve, to deprive, to fail, to finish, to abstain, to pity; as, Dejó de estudiar, he-ceased to- | No faltaré de hacerlo, I-willstudy. not fail to do it. When the preposition "to" in English is used before the infinitive in the sense "in order to" (as, he labours to acquire fame, meaning, he labours in order to acquire fame), the preposition para is used in Spanish before the infinitive; as, El hombre fué criado para aspirar a la felicidad, man was created in-order-to aspire to felicity. When the preposition "to" in English is used in the sense "for the sake of," the preposition por is used in Spanish before the infinitive; as, Juan lo dice, por decirlo, John says it for-the-sake-of saying it. Sometimes que precedes the infinitive instead of por or para ; 28, Tiene algo que decirte, he-has something (which) to-tell thee. The infinitive is often used without any preposition before it, especially when it is governed by verbs which mean, to be able, to permit, to wish, to endeavour, to make, to feign, to owe, to seem, to be wont, to know, to avail, to see, to hear, to succeed, to hope, to be necessary, to think, to believe, to promise, to deign, to be the duty, to pretend, to judge, to prescribe, to require, to suffice; as, No puede hacerlo, he-is not | Deseo aprender, I-wish toable to-do it. learn. The infinitive in Spanish, when used as a present participle in English may take any preposition before it; as, as, Sometimes verbs having the sense, to remove or to take away, require the preposition d before the noun to which the action of the verb passes over; as, Cain quitó la vida á su hermano | Cortaron la cabeza á Saul, they- Verbs denoting to be abundant, to lack, to be astonished, to blame, to repent, to pity, to make use, to absolve, to make sport, to remember, to forget, indirectly govern a noun by means of the preposition de; as, Los valles abundan de trigo, the valleys abound with (of) wheat. Los discipulos se asombraron de sus palabras, the disciples were astonished at (of) his words. Llenaron la casa de perros, they filled the house with (of) dogs. Olvidar, to forget, is followed by de only when it is used as a reflective verb; as, Olvidar su nombre, to-forget his name. Olvidarse de lo pasado, toforget the past. The verb ser, when used to imply property or possession, requires the noun denoting the possessor to be preceded by the preposition de; as, El libro es de mi padre, the book belongs to (is of) my father. De generally precedes nouns which denote the causes of which the verb explains the effect; as, Tiembla de miedo, he-trembles | Sus ojos se bañaron de lágrimas, with (from) fear. his eyes were wet with Tirita de frio, he-shivers with (of) tears. (of) cold Literally, to-forget oneself of the past. |