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fall into something. If the place is mentioned, it appears in the dative with ev, though analogy would lead you to expect the accusative with εις. Consequently the Greeks said τιθέναι, κατατιθεναι εν νηι, εν ταφῳ; τιθεναι εν χερσιν ; τιθεναι εν στηλη, to set on a pillar; τιθεναι εν τοις δικαιοις, to place among (or in the class of) the just; εν τοις φιλοσοφοις τιθέναι, to reckon among philosophers ; s0, βαλειν ενι ποντῳ, to cast into the sea; καθίζειν εν έδρα, to place on a seat; δησαι εν δεσμῳ, to bind in chains. The preposition επι, with the genitive or the dative, is sometimes used with these verbs; e.g. καθίζειν επι θρονου, κατατιθεναι επι τῆς γῆς, καταπίπτειν επι γῆς; and in the poets, επι γη πιπτειν, καταπίπτειν, τιθεναι επι γουνασιν, επι φρεσιν.

In English we often employ in where into would analogically seem required. Thus we say, " to fu!l in love ; ” “ he took the book in his hand.” By attention to the renderings of the prepositions in the examples just given, you will learn how impossible it is, consistently with the preservation of the English idiom, to adhere to one English representative, or, in other words, to limit yourself to one English meaning, of a Greek preposition. Er denotes in, this is its fundamental signification ; but above it is of necessity rendered on, among, and into ; and, as found in τιθεναι εν νηι, would have to be translated on board of. You must ever bear in mind, that at the best one language is only an imperfect picture of another. You must also be told that you receive instructions in English to enable you not to turn Greek into English so much as to read English in Greek, or rather to read Greek in Greek. Then only will you thoroughly understand a language when you read its literature without any medium whatever.

To resume: With verbs which denote going to and arriving at a place, you will often find & with the genitive, in the poets with the dative, whereby it is intimated that in the writer's mind a tarrying at was consequent on the reaching of a place. Very common, therefore, are forms such as ιεναι, απιεναι, κομίζεσθαι, αναχωρεῖν, αποχωρεῖν, πλεῖν, αποπλεῖν, φεύγειν επ' οίκον, επ Αθηνών, επι Σαλαμῖνος; and especially επι, with the geni'ive used of names of cities and islands, as ἡ επι Βαβυλῶνος ύδος, etc. ; so, poetically, ιθύνειν ίππους επι τινι, ορμᾶσθαι επ' ανδρασιν, επ' αλληλοισιν ιέναι, οι ορουειν, and the like.

The place at which anything happens is sometimes represented by the Greeks as that towards which any one proceeds, the process rather than the result being prominent in the thoughts. This peculiarity is exemplified in παρεῖναι and παραγιγνεσθαι used with εις and an accusative, as παρείναι εις τινα τοπον, to be present at a certain place; παρεῖναι επι το βῆμα, to ascend the speaking place (the rostrum (rostra t), or what in French is called the tribune) : συλλεγεσθαι εις χωριον, to assemble at a place; συνελθειν εἰς ἑν οι εις ταύτον, to meet in one spot; αποβαίνειν ες χωριον, το land at a place. With verbs which signify a spreading in space, the Greeks use εις, with an accusative. Such verbs are, διαδιδοναι, διασπειρειν, etc. ; as διαδιδοναι εις την πολιν, to spread over the city. 'The relation of movement or extension from a place is often used by the Greeks where in English we conceive of the relation implied in at or on, and consequently they employ ex and απο in such instances ; as with verbs signifying to hang, to suspend, e.g. κρεμασθαι εκ τινος, to hang on something; κρεμαννύναι εκ τινος, to suspend from; ανάπτειν εκ τινος, το attach to; also, απο τινος, το bind to.

The same thing takes place with general indications of place, as εκ δεξιας, on the right hand ; εξ αριστερας, on the left hand ;

The preposition sometimes comes after the noun. This is very common in poetry. In prose the deviation is found chiefy with ένεκα; sometimes with περι, in connexion with the genitive, e.g. ήμων ένεκα, on our account ; τουτου ένεκα, on that account; σοφίας περι, concerning wisdom. Also ανευ stands after the relative pronoun in the genitive case, ών ανευ. If the substantive to which the preposition belongs is accompanied by an attribute, the preposition is put between the two, frequently in poetry, rarely in prose; e.g. ουδεν δι' αλλο, on no other account ; χρονον επι πολύν, for a long time. Between the preposition and its case, there are interposed connective or determinative particles, which cannot stand at the beginning of a sentence; such as μεν, δε, τε, οὖν, τοινον, γαρ, γε, δη, e.g. εν μεν τη δημοκρατία, in the democracy ; παρα δε τοις άλλοις, with the rest; προς τε το μελλον, in regard to the future; εν γαρ ειρηνη, in peace ; κατα γε το δυνατον, at least as far as possible; πολλῶν δη οὖν ένεκεν, for many reasons ; αρετῆς οὖν περι, concerning virtue, then. Other words also, which are used parenthetically, may be interposed between & preposition and its case; as οἶμαι, Ι think; and ώς έπος ειπείν, so to say; e.g. εν οἶμαι πολλοῖς, probably in many ; παρα γαρ οἶμαι τους νόμους, contrary to the law, I think.

In the connexion of several ideas, words depending on the same preposition require the preposition to be repeated before each if there is a strong contrast between them, or if the preposition is used emphatically; but not otherwise.

αγυμναστως εχειν προς τε ψυχη και θαλπη
to be undisciplined for cold and heat.

The preposition is repeated with relatives, and with nouns in apposition, when the two members are expressly separated from each other; especially when the relative clause precede the demonstrative: e.g.

ουκ εστι συντομωτερα οδος περὶ ὧν αν βονλη δοκεῖν φρονιμος there is not a more ready way than to be wise

είναι η το γενεσθαι περι τουτων φρονιμον

in those things in which you wish to appear wise.
παρ' ἡμᾶς φοιτῇ ὡς παρα φιλους

visit us as friends.

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μετα του νομου
παρά τους νόμους
παρ' οἶνον
παρ' ἑκαστον

προς
αυλον ορχεῖσθαι
προς τον καιρον
προς μεσαμβρίης

προς ἡμων εἶναι προς θεων

every day

as much as possib to Hades

it depends on thee

to be useful in himself some grew rich by the war justly

every year

as well as you can corporeal desires

to be in the power of the

governors

on the side of the law

against the laws

at wine, over your cups each by each, severally to dance to the flute

seasonably

on the southern side

to be for our advantage

by the gods, in the name of

the gods

εκ πλαγίου, on the Hank, εκ του εναντιον, opposite, on the προς θεῶν και προς ανθρωπων before gods and men opposite side. If a local indication is annexed attributively to the subject or the object, and the verb is of that kind which denotes a removal from a place or an operation from a point, the Greeks employ the prepositions which correspond to that relation, namely, εκ and απο (rarely παρα) with the genitive. In such cases we, in English, should use in, or on, or at: e.g. οἱ εκ της πολεως εξῆλθον

those in the city went out.

τους εκ του τείχους στρατιωτας εξέβαλον

they drove out the soldiers who were in the castle The proper place, as indeed the name (paz, before, and pono, I put) indicates, of the preposition, is immediately before the There are, however, some deviations.

πουπ.

ύπ' ευνοίας
ύπο τον οφθαλμον

παρα νύκτα
παρα το αλγεινον
επι τεττάρων
εφ' ένος

είτ' επι το βελτιον, ειτ' επι το χεῖρον

περι πάντων εμμεναι αλλων
κατα της κεφαλής
δια στόματος έχειν

from good-will

under the eye

by night

in comparison of what is painful

four deep

one by one

for better, for worse

to surpass all others

down the head

to speak about

EXERCISES.-GREEK-ENGLISH.

Examples.

lour of the French

L'amore di Dio, the love of | I valore dei Francesi, the va π domo di Firenze, the cathe- I dente di giudicio spunta tar

God

dral of Florence

I futti del mare, the waves of
the sea

di, the tooth of wisdom springs late

Rule 15.-If, in English, a noun is in the possessive case, and followed by another noun, in Italian the former is placed after the latter, preceded by di, del, dello, della, or dei, etc. Examples.

Τα τῶν Αιγυπτιων πλοῖα ανα μεν τον ποταμον ου δύνανται πλεῖν ην μη λαμπρος ανεμος επέχῃ, ἐκ γῆς δε παρέλκεται. Οἱ πολεμιοι φεύγουσιν ανα κράτος. Οἱ Πέρσαι διδάσκουσι τους παιδας και σωφροσυνην· μέγα δε συμβάλλεται εις το μανθάνειν σωφρονεῖν αυτους, ότι και τους πρεσβυτέρους ὁρῶσιν ανα πᾶσαν ἡμεραν σώφρονας διάγοντας. Κλέαρχος, ώςπερ εις αλλην τινα ἡδονην, ηθελε δαπανᾶν εις πόλεμον, ούτω φιλοπόλεμος ἦν. Κύρος εξελαύνει επι τον Χαλον ποταμον· αἱ δε κῶμαι, εν αἷς εσκήνουν, Παρυσάτιδος ἦσαν, εις ζωνην δεδομεναι. Ενεβαλλον εις την Αττικήν στρατῳ μεγάλῳ Λακεδαιμόνιοι μετα των συμ- La chiesa di S. Paolo, Saint | La figlia del re μάχων, Αρχιδάμου του βασιλεως ἡγουμενου. Χωρια σκουν Paul's church daughter ισχυρα οἱ Ταοχοι, εν οἷς και τα επιτήδεια παντα εἶχον. Κύρος Il palazzo di S. Giacomo, Saint | I guanti della moglie del maesεπαιδεύθη εν Περσῶν νομοις. Το εμον σῶμα, όταν τελευτήσω, James's palace tro di caso del fratello del re, the king's brother'sμητε εν χρυσῷ θῆτε, μητε εν αργυρῳ, μητε εν αλλῳ μηδενι, αλλα steward's wife's gloves τῇ γῇ ὡς ταχιστα αποδοτε. Οἱ τριακοτα εβοηθουν τους Ελευ σινίοις ξυν τοῖς Λακωνικοῖς και ξυν τοῖς ἱππεῦσι. Πειρᾶσθαι

Le

leggi del Gran-Duca_di Tos-
cana, the Great Duke of
Tuscany's laws

the king's

forming & compound noun, and showing the matter of which
Rule 16. When two nouns are joined together in English,
a thing is made, the preposition di is put between the two
nouns.
Examples.

Vedo una casa di mattoni, I see | E un dio di legno, it is a
a brick house
wooden god
Datemi un orologio d'oro, give
me a gold watch

Ecco la statua di marmo, behold

the marble statue Ho perduto un anello di diamanti, I have lost a diamond ring.

OF ADJECTIVES.

χρη συν τοις θεοῖς αρχεσθαι παντός έργου. Δει τα βέλτιστα αντι τῶν λήξεων λαμβάνειν. Εστράτευσαν οἱ Έλληνες επι βασιλεα ὡς δοῦλον αντι βασιλεως ποιησοντες. Τα μακρά τείχη ᾠκοδόμησαν Αθηναῖοι Μεγαρεῦσι, τα απο της πόλεως ες Νιο σαιαν. Οἱ εκ τῆς ἀγορᾶς ανθρωποι φεύγουσιν. Κατέβησαν οἱ ἐκ τοῦ ορους. Το εξ Επιδαυρου τεῖχος εκλιποῦσι. Οἱ ἐκ τῆς ̔Ελλαδος τυραννοι κατελύθησαν. Οἱ ἐκ τῶν νησων κακούργοι ανεστησαν. Αφίκοντο προς αυτον τῶν παρα βασιλέως τινες. Οἱ Μήδοι ανεχωρησαν εκ τῆς Ευρώπης νικηθεντες και ναυσι και πεζῷ ὑπο Ελληνων. Ενιοι δενδρα πειρῶνται θεραπεύειν τοῦ καρποῦ ἕνεκα. Κῦρος εμβαλων νικά τους προ βασιλεως τεταγ μενους. Ο Κύρος εξελαύνει δια Συρίας εις Μυρίανδρον, πολιν οικουμένην ὑπο φοινικών επι τῇ θαλαττη. Οἱ βαρβαροι εκαιον πυρα πολλα δια νυκτος. Καλλισθένην ὁ δημος απέκτεινεν ου δια τας προς Περδικκαν ανοχας, αλλα δι' έτερας ἁμαρτίας. Το ύδωρ κατα τας τάφρους εχωρει. Αἱ εχιδναι κατα πᾶσαν την γῆν εισι. Εσκηνουν οἱ Κυρου στατιῶται κατά τάξεις. Οι Έλληνες ἐς τα πλοῖα τους τε ασθενοῦντας ενεβίβασαν και τους ύπερ τετταράκοντα έτη. Ενιοι τῶν Περσῶν εἶχον και στρεπτους περὶ τοῖς τραχηλοις και ψέλλια περὶ τοῖς χερσιν. Οἱ στρατιῶται, επει επι τας σκηνας απῆλθον, περι τα επιτήδεια ἦσαν. Σωκράτης το μητε περί Θεούς ασεβῆσαι μητε περι ανθρώπους αδικος φανῆναι περι παντος εποιεῖτο. Κῦρος εξετασιν ποιεῖται Rule 18.—Two or more substantives of different genders των βαρβάρων εν τῷ πεδιῳ περι μέσας νύκτας. Κύρος αναβας | require the adjective in the plural masculine. επι τον ίππον τα παλτα εις τας χεῖρας έλαβε. Οποταν βουλῇ ειςιέναι ώς εμε, επι σοι εσται. Οἱ Αθηναῖοι επλευσαν ναυσιν ἑξήκοντα επι Σαμου. Ου παρα μητρι σιτοῦνται οἱ των Περσων παῖδες, αλλα παρα τῳ διδασκαλῳ.

ENGLISH-GREEK.

The soldiers marched up the country. The soldiers marched down the hill. The soldiers marched over the mountains. The soldiers sat down alongside the walls. The soldiers marched from Athens to Marathon. The soldiers fought at Marathon. The soldiers fought bravely for their country. The soldiers fought against the enemy. The soldiers were drawn out in battle array. One soldier died for another. The soldiers had helmets on their heads. The soldiers sailed up the sea to Salamis. The soldiers sailed down the sea to Rome. The soldiers were instructed in the laws of their country. The soldiers, together with the allies, entered the city. The soldiers came out of the city and were dispersed over the land.

LESSONS IN ITALIAN GRAMMAR.-No. L.

SYNTAX.-Continued.

OF NOUNS.

Rule 14.-When two nouns in English are united by the preposition of, di is used before the latter, if it requires no article; but if it does. it is preceded by del, dello, della.

Rule 17.-The Adjective, in Italian, agrees in gender and number with the substantive to which it refers. Examples. chirurgo del Signor Anna è | Io stato un bravo uomo, Mr. Anna's surgeon has been an excellent man

Il

Tutti i giorni non possono essere
fecondi di brillanti avveni-
menti, every day cannot
produce brilliant events

Dio

non feci parola di quella mia ridicola avventura, I did not speak of my ridiculous adventure

ti benedica amorosa faneiulla! God bless you, loving child!

Oh che belle parabole! oh, what fine parables!

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Examples.

Rifiutano l'occasione d'acquis-Egli è d'una piacevolezza e d'

tare onori, e gloria nuova, they refuse an opportunity of gaining new honours and glory Egli avea la mano e il cappello rosso, he had a red hand and hat

Ecco l'affetto e la pietà materna, behold the maternal tenderness and piety

un brio maraviglioso, he is
of uncommon gentleness
and vivacity
Emolti prieghi, e promesse gran-
dissime mescolate, niuna
cosa ottenne, and though
he used many entreaties
and fair promises to per-
suade her, yet it was all

in vain

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Rule 25.-The adjectives bello, buono, grande, santo, lose their Rule 21.-Italian adjectives are generally placed either be- final vowel before words beginning with a vowel, and take an fore or after their substantives. apostrophe in its place.

Examples.

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E benche, potessino far le guerre
più lunghe, and though
they could carry on the
longest wars

Egli è il più dotto precettore di
Cambridge, he is the most

leared instructor in Cam-
bridge

OF NUMERALS.

THE CARDINAL NUMBERS.

Vita di Carlo duodecimo, Life | Il secolo di Luigi decimoquarto, the age of Louis the Fourteenth

La

of Charles the Twelfth cattività del pontefice Pio sesto, the captivity of the pontiff Pius the Sixth Ferdinando quarto re di Napoli, Ferdinand the Fourth, king of Naples

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imperador Carlo quinto era sovrano delle Spagne, the emperor Charles the Fifth was sovereign of Spain

LESSONS IN SPANISH.-No. XX.

OF THE PASSIVE VERB.

THE passive verb is generally rendered in Spanish by ser, and always when the subject of the verb is acted upon by an agent, that is, when in English it would be accompanied with the preposition by; as,

Este discurso fué escrito por Diego, this discourse was written by

James.

The passive verb must be rendered in Spanish by estar when the past participle is used adjectively, that is, when the subject of the verb does not seem so much to be acted upon by an agent as to have its state or condition described; as,

Rule 32.-The Cardinal Numbers are placed either before or El discurso estuvo bien escrito, | El libro está correjido, the book

after their substantives.

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the discourse was well
written.

is corrected.

The passive verb formed by ser is used in Spanish in the present and imperfect of the indicative mood, only when it is designed to express a mental act or a state of the emotions; as,

María es amada de Cárlos, Mary is loved by Charles.

When a mental act or a state of the emotions is not ex

pressed, the passive verb, if it be used, must not be in the present or imperfect of the indicative mood: thus we cannot say, el libro es escrito por un Español, the book is written by a Spaniard, but, el libro ha sido escrito por un Español, the book has been written by a Spaniard.

When a mental act or state of the emotions is expressed, the prepositions de or por may be used after the passive verb before the agent; but when a mental act or state of the emotions is not expressed, por only can be used; as,

Maria es amada de (or por) | Todas las cosas fueron hechas Carlos, Mary is beloved por Dios, all things were made by God.

by Charles.

The reflective pronoun se is often used with verbs of the active voice, which are required to be rendered in English by the passive.

OF THE REGIMEN OF VERBS.

The object or regimen of the verb is either direct or indirect. The direct regimen is that on which the action immediately falls without the aid of any preposition; as,

Doy una pluma, I give a pen.

The indirect regimen is that on which the action of the verb cannot fall without the aid of a preposition; as,

Dijo á la muger, he-said to the woman.
Sometimes both regimens are required after the verb; as,
Dió una pluma a' la muger, he-gave a pen to the woman.
When the object of an active verb is a person or inanimate
thing personified, it must be preceded by the preposition a';"

as,

• This is a very important rule of Spanish syntax.

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Sometimes the harmony of the sentence requires the a' to be suppressed, especially after the persons of the verb tener, to have, or to possess; as,

Tengo un hijo y tres hijas, I-have one son and three daughters. One verb governs another in the infinitive mood; as,

Quieren imitarle, they-want to-imitate him.

Some verbs, as a general rule, require the preposition a' before the infinitive which they govern; such are those which mean, to attempt, to come, to go, to begin, to devote, to offer, to dare, to serve, to invite, to learn, to teach, to urge, to assist, to call, to advise, to submit, to prepare, to compel, to decide, to remain, and to accustom one's self; as,

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The above examples literally would be rendered, “the king of that which is evil." to-him it ordered to-give," and "not thyself suffer to overcome

When a verb is governed by another in English, and can be rendered in another mood by using the conjunction "that," this latter mood should be employed in Spanish; thus, instead of saying, I think him to be learned, we can say, I think that he is (or may be) learned; and instead of, I requested him to I generally be adopted in Spanish ;

Probéd toerators, he attempt- | Voy a verla, I-am-going to form of construction should that he should go, which latter

ed himself.

see

Some verbs generally require the preposition de before the infinitive which they govern; such as those which mean, to cease, to be glad, to be ashamed, to resolve, to deprive, to fail, to finish, to abstain, to pity; as,

Dejó de estudiar, he-ceased to- | No faltaré de hacerlo, I-willstudy. not fail to do it.

as,

Espero que tendré el gusto de verle en breve, I-hope to have (that I-shall-have) the pleasure of seeing him soon.

OF VERES FOLLOWED BY CERTAIN PREPOSITIONS.

Verbs which signify to compare, to give, to yield, to resist, to concern, to belong, to refuse, to ask, generally require the preposition & before the noun to which the action of the verb passes over; as,

When the preposition "to" in English is used before the infinitive in the sense "in order to" (as, he labours to acquire Ella se parece á su madre, she | Demanda sabiduría al Señor, fame, meaning, he labours in order to acquire fame), the preposition para is used in Spanish before the infinitive; as,

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Tiene algo que decirte, he-has something (which) to-tell thee. The infinitive is often used without any preposition before it, especially when it is governed by verbs which mean, to be able, to permit, to wish, to endeavour, to make, to feign, to owe, to seem, to be wont, to know, to avail, to see, to hear, to succeed, to hope, to be necessary, to think, to believe, to promise, to deign, to be the duty, to pretend, to judge, to prescribe, to require, to suffice; as,

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resembles her mother.

he asks wisdom from (tothe) Lord.

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Olvidar, to forget, is followed by de only when it is used as a reflective verb; as,

*

Olvidarse de lo pasado, toforget the past.

Olvidar su nombre, to-forget his

name.

The verb ser, when used to imply property or possession, requires the noun denoting the possessor to be preceded by the preposition de; as,

El libro es de mi padre, the book belongs to (is of) my father. De generally precedes nouns which denote the causes of which the verb explains the effect; as,

Tiembla de miedo, he-trembles | Sus ojos se bañaron de lágrimas, with (from) fear. his eyes were wet with Tirita de frio, he-shivers with (of) tears. (of) cold

Literally, to-forget oneself of the past.

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