Battle of Actium, 31 B.C.

Antony's disgraceful conduct aroused the Roman people. They willingly followed Octavian to a war against one who seemed a national enemy. A naval battle in the bay of Actium, on the coast of Epirus, decided the issue. The fight had hardly begun before Cleopatra and Antony sailed away, leaving their fleet to take care of itself. Octavian pursued the infatuated pair into Egypt. Antony committed suicide, and Cleopatra, rather than be led a captive in a Roman triumph, followed his example. With the death of Cleopatra the dynasty of the Ptolemies1 came to an end. Egypt henceforth formed a province of the Roman Empire. Octavian, on his return to Rome, enjoyed the honors of a three days' triumph.2 As the grand parade moved along the The triumph Sacred Way through the Forum, and thence to of Octavian the temple of Jupiter on the Capitoline, men noted that the magistrates, instead of heading the procession as was the custom, followed in the conqueror's train. It was a significant change. Octavian, not the magistrates of Rome, now ruled the Roman world.

65. The End of an Epoch

The republic, indeed, was doomed. A hundred years of dissension and civil warfare proclaimed clearly enough the failure Doom of the of the old order. Rome was a city-state suddenly republic called to the responsibilities of universal rule. Both the machinery of her government and the morals of her people were inadequate for so huge a task. The gradual revolution which changed this Roman city-state into imperial Rome, judged by its results, is perhaps the most momentous movement in the annals of mankind. Let us summarize its course. In 133 B.C. Roman society had been corrupted and enfeebled as the result of foreign conquests. The supreme power in the state more and more tended to fall into the hands of revolution of a narrow oligarchy the senatorial nobility. Its dishonesty and weakness soon led to efforts at reform. The attempts of the Gracchi to overthrow the Senate's position and 2 See page 160.

A century

1 See page 127.

restore popular sovereignty ended in disaster. Then, in quick succession, arose a series of military leaders who aimed to secure by the sword what was no longer to be obtained through constitutional and legal means. Marius, a great general but no politician, could only break down and destroy. Sulla, a sincere but narrow-minded statesman, could do no more than prop up the structure - already tottering-of senatorial rule. Pompey soon undid that work and left the constitution to become again the sport of rival soldiers. Cæsar, triumphing over Pompey, gained a position of unchallenged supremacy. After Cæsar's death, imperial power was permanently restored in the person of Octavian. The battle of Actium in 31 B.C. made Octavian master of the Roman world.

The future

But the Romans were not yet an old and worn-out people. On the ruins of the old republican order it was still possible to build up a new imperial system in which good government, peace, and prosperity should prevail for more than two centuries. During this period Rome performed her real, her enduring, work for civilization.

Studies

1. Write a summary account (500 words) of Roman expansion 264-133 B.C. 2. On outline maps indicate the possessions of Carthage and Rome at the beginning of the First Punic War; at the beginning of the Second Punic War; at the end of the Second Punic War. 3. On outline maps indicate the boundaries of the Roman world in 133 B.C. and in 31 B.C. and the division into provinces at these dates. 4. What events are connected with the following places: Zama; Cannæ; Actium; Pharsalus; and Philippi? 5. Who were Quintus Fabius Maximus, Mithradates, Catiline, and Cleopatra? 6. Indentify the following dates: 146 B.C.; 264 B.C.; 133 B.C.; 201 B.C.; 44 B.C.; and 63 B.C. 7. Why has Carthage been called the "London" of the ancient world? 8. What is meant by the statement that Carthage is a "dumb actor on the stage of history"? 9. Was Rome wise in adopting her new policy of expansion beyond the limits of Italy? Give some examples in modern times of war indemnities paid by defeated nations. 11. Why did the Romans call the Second Punic War the "War of Hannibal”? 12. What is a "Fabian policy"? Do you know why Washington was called the "American Fabius"? reasons can you give for Hannibal's early successes and final failure? signal importance to Rome of her control of the sea during the Second Punic War. 15. Comment on this statement: "As the rise of Rome was central in history, the Second Punic War was central in the rise of Rome." 16. What provinces had been formed by 133 B.C. (map facing page 184)? 17. What parts of the world belonged to Rome in 133 B.C. but were not yet provinces? 18. Might Rome have extended

10.

13. What 14. Show the

her federal policy to her territories outside of Italy? Was a provincial system really necessary? 19. Compare a Persian satrapy with a Roman province. 20. Would import duties on foreign grain have revived Italian agriculture? 21. Why did the cattle breeder in Italy have no reason to fear foreign competition? 22. Compare the Athenian practice of state pay with the Roman "bread and the games of the circus." 23. Had the Italians triumphed in the Social War, is it likely they would have established a better government than that of Rome? 24. Was Marius or was Sulla more to blame for the Civil War? 25. Explain the real meaning of Sulla's "perpetual dictatorship." 26. Why was the rule of the Senate, unsatisfactory though it was, to be preferred to that of the Roman populace? 27. Why is the First Triumvirate described as a "ring"? Did it have an official character? 28. Why does the First Triumvirate mark a distinct step toward the establishment of the empire? 29. Why can wars with barbarous and savage peoples be justified as "the most ultimately righteous of all wars"? 30. Can you suggest why Cæsar's conquest of Gaul had even greater importance than Pompey's conquests in the East? 31. Was Cæsar justified in leading his army against Rome? 32. Had Pompey triumphed over Cæsar, is it probable that the republic would have been restored? 33. What contrasts can you draw between Cæsar and Alexander? 34. Justify the aphorism, "In the midst of arms the laws are silent," by the statements in this chapter. 35. How do you account for the failure of the republican institutions of Rome?

CHAPTER IX

THE EARLY EMPIRE: THE WORLD UNDER ROMAN RULE, 31 B.C.-180 A.D.1

66. Augustus, 31 B.C.-14 A.D.

THE period of two hundred and eleven years, between the accession of Augustus and the death of Marcus Aurelius, is known as the Early EmThe Early

pire. As we shall Empire, 31

now learn, it

was a time of set

B.C.-180
A.D.

tled government and of inter

nal tranquillity. Except for a brief period of anarchy at the close of the reign of Nero, it was also a time of regular succession to the throne. Nearly all the emperors were vigorous and capable rulers. The peace and prosperity which they gave to the Roman world amply justify-if justification be needed the change from republic to empire.

Few persons have set their stamp more indelibly on the pages of history than Octavian, whom we The new may now call by his more

ruler

familiar name Augustus ("Majestic"). Augustus was no military genius to

AUGUSTUS

Vatican Museum, Rome

dazzle the world with his achievements. He was a cool and passionless statesman who took advantage of a memorable

1 Webster, Readings in Ancient History, chapter xix, "The Makers of Imperial Rome: Character Sketches by Suetonius"; chapter xx, "Nero, a Roman Emperor."

opportunity to remake the Roman state, and who succeeded in the attempt. Absolute power, which destroys weaker men, with Augustus brought out the nobler elements of character. From the successful leader of a party he became the wise and impartial ruler of an empire.

The new

Augustus had almost unlimited power. His position was that of a king, as supreme as Julius Cæsar had ever been. Better, however, than Julius Cæsar, Augustus government realized that an undisguised autocracy would only alienate public opinion and invite fresh plots and rebellions. Augustus intended to be the real master, but he would also be careful to conceal his authority under republican forms. The emperor was neither king, dictator, nor triumvir. He called himself a republican magistrate - Princeps 1- the "First Citizen" of the state.

Powers enjoyed by Augustus

1

Augustus gave up the externals, only to keep the essentials, of royalty. He held the proconsular authority, which extended over the frontier provinces and their legions. He held the tribunician authority, which made his person sacred. As perpetual tribune he could preside over the popular assemblies, manage the Senate and change its membership at pleasure, and veto the acts of almost any magistrate. In the provinces and at home in the capital city the emperor was supreme.

tus

Augustus ruled a vast realm. In it all the dreams of world dominion which Alexander had cherished were more than realized. The empire included nearly the entire circle The empire under Augus- of the Mediterranean lands. On the west and south it found natural barriers in the Atlantic Ocean and the African desert. On the east the Euphrates River had formed, since the defeat of Crassus,2 the dividing line between Rome and Parthia. The northern frontier, beyond which lay the Germanic barbarians, required, however, additional conquests for its protection.

The Danube River made an admirable boundary for much of the Roman territory between the Black Sea and the Rhine. 1 Hence our word "prince." See page 184.