Codification of Roman

law

The conquests of Justinian proved to be less enduring than his work as a lawgiver. Until his reign the sources of Roman law, including the legislation of the popular assemblies, the decrees of the Senate, the edicts of the prætors and emperors, and the decisions of learned lawyers, had never been completely collected and arranged in scientific form. Justinian appointed a commission of legal scholars to perform this task. The result of their labors, in which the emperor himself assisted, was the publication of the Corpus Juris Civilis, the "Body of Civil Law." Under this form the Roman principles of jurisprudence have become the foundation of the legal systems of modern Italy, Spain, France, Germany, and other European countries. These principles even influenced the Common law of England, which has been adopted by the United States. The Corpus Juris Civilis, because of this widespread influence, is justly regarded as one of Rome's most important gifts to the world.

Justinian's claim to the title of "Great" rests also on his civilizing work. He wished to restore the prosperity, as well as the provinces, of the empire. During his reign Civilizing roads, bridges, and aqueducts were repaired, and work of Justinian commerce and agriculture were encouraged. It was at this time that two Christian missionaries brought from China the eggs of the silkworm, and introduced the manufacture of silk in Europe. As a builder Justinian gained special fame. The edifices which he caused to be raised throughout his dominions included massive fortifications on the exposed frontiers, splendid palaces, and many monasteries and churches. The most noteworthy monument to his piety is the church of Sancta Sophia 2 at Constantinople, now used as a Mohammedan mosque. By his conquests, his laws, and his buildings, Justinian revived for a time the waning glory of imperial Rome.

1 Roman law still prevails in the province of Quebec and the state of Louisiana, territories formerly under French control, and in all the Spanish-American countries.

2 In Greek, Hagia Sophia, "Holy Wisdom."

116. The Empire and its Asiatic Foes

The Roman Empire in the East did not long remain at the pinnacle of greatness to which Justinian had raised it. His After conquests, indeed, weakened rather than strengthJustinian ened the empire, since now there were much more extensive frontiers to defend. Within half a century after his death it was attacked both in Europe and in Asia. The Lom

1

bards 1 soon seized Italy, and in the East the Persians renewed their contest against the Roman power.

2

Persians

The struggle with the Persians was an inheritance from earlier times. Under an ambitious king, Chosroes II, the Persians overran all the Asiatic provinces of the empire. A savior arose, however, in the person of the Roman emperor, Heraclius (610-641 A.D.). His brilliant campaigns against Chosroes partook of the nature of a crusade, or "holy war," for the Persians had violated the Holy Sepulcher at Jerusalem and had stolen away the True Cross, the most 2 See page 219.

1 See page 302.

sacred relic of Christendom. Heraclius recovered all his provinces, but only at the cost of a bloody struggle which drained them of men and money and helped to make them fall easy victims to foes still more terrible than the Persians. These were

the Arabs.

Heraclius had not closed his reign before he saw all his victories undone by the advance of the Arabs. The first wave of invasion tore away Syria and Egypt from the Arabs empire, penetrated Asia Minor, and reached the

shores of the Bosporus. Repulsed before the walls of Constantinople, the Arabs carried their arms to the West and seized North Africa, Spain, part of southern Italy, and the Mediterranean islands. Asia Minor and the Balkan peninsula still held out, however, and during the tenth century a line of able rulers at Constantinople succeeded in winning back some of their lost provinces.

During the eleventh century the empire had to face new enemies. These were the Seljuk Turks,' fierce nomads from the steppes beyond the Caspian. After their Seljuk Turks conversion to Mohammedanism, they swept with irresistible force through the East and conquered nearly all Asia Minor. The ruin of this country, in earlier ages one of the most populous and flourishing regions of the world, dates from its occupation by the Seljuks. To resist their further advance the Roman emperor sought in 1095 A.D. the help of the Christians of Europe. His appeals for aid resulted in the First Crusade, with which a new chapter of medieval history began.2

Work of the

empire in

Asia

Thus, for more than five centuries after Justinian, the Roman Empire in the East was engaged in a long struggle with the foes Persians, Arabs, and Seljuk Turks- which successively attacked its dominions. By its stubborn resistance of the advance of the invaders the old empire protected the young states of Europe from attack, until they grew strong enough to meet and repulse the hordes of Asia. This service to civilization was not less important 2 See chapter xx.

1 So named from one of their leaders.

than that which had been performed by Greece and Rome in their contests with the Persians and the Carthaginians.

Slavs

117. The Empire and its Foes in Europe

The troubled years after Justinian's death also witnessed the beginning of the Slavic settlements in southeastern Europe. The Slavs belonged to the Indo-European race, but had not progressed in civilization as far as the Germans. Their cradle land seems to have been in western Russia, whence they slowly spread to the Baltic, the Elbe, and the Danube. We have already mentioned the campaigns which Charlemagne and Henry the Fowler waged against them. The emperors at Constantinople were less successful in resisting that branch of the Slavs which tried to occupy the Balkan peninsula. After crossing the Danube, the Slavs pressed on farther and farther, until they reached the southern extremity of ancient Greece. They avoided the cities, but formed peasant communities in the open country, where they readily mingled with the inhabitants. Their descendants have remained in the Balkan peninsula to this day. The inhabitants of modern Serbia 3 are Slavs, and even in the Greeks there is a considerable strain of Slavic blood.

The Bulgarians, a people akin to the Huns and Avars, made their appearance south of the lower Danube in the seventh century. For more than three hundred years Bulgarians these barbarians, brutal, fierce, and cruel, were a menace to the empire. At one time they threatened Constantinople and even killed a Roman emperor, whose skull was converted into a drinking cup to grace their feasts. The Bulgarians settled in the region which now bears their name and gradually adopted the speech and customs of the Slavs. Modern Bulgaria is essentially a Slavic state.

The word slova means "speech"; the Slavs are those who speak the same language.

2 See pages 309, 315.

A more accurate designation than Servia. Originally, all Slavic peoples called themselves Serbs.

Russians

The empire was attacked in southeastern Europe by still other barbarians, among whom were the Russians. This Slavic people, led by chieftains from Sweden, descended the Dnieper and Dniester rivers and, crossing the Black Sea, appeared before the walls of Constantinople. Already, in the tenth century, that city formed the goal of Russian ambitions. The invaders are said to have made four attempts to plunder its treasures. Though unsuccessful, they compelled the emperors from time to time to pay them tribute.

Work of the

empire in Europe

Christianity reached the invaders of the Balkan peninsula from Constantinople. The Serbians, Bulgarians, and Russians were converted in the ninth and tenth centuries. With Christianity they received the use of letters and some knowledge of Roman law and methods. of government. Constantinople was to them, henceforth, such a center of religion and culture as Rome was to the Germans. By becoming the teacher of the vast Slavic peoples of the Balkan peninsula and European Russia, the empire performed another important service to civilization.

118. Byzantine Civilization

The Roman Empire in the East, though often menaced by barbarian foes, long continued to be the leading European power. Its highest degree of prosperity was reached be- Strength

tween the middle of the ninth and the middle of and wealth the eleventh century. The provinces in Asia of the empire Minor and the Balkan peninsula produced a vast annual revenue, much of which went for defense. It was necessary to maintain a large, well-disciplined army, great fleets and engines of war, and the extensive fortifications of Constantinople and the frontier cities. Confronted by so many dangers, the empire could hope to survive only by making itself a strong military

state.

The merchant ships of Constantinople, during the earlier part of the Middle Ages, carried on most of the commerce of the