Perhaps these medieval peasants were not much worse off than the agricultural laborers in most countries of modern Europe. Freemen, slaves, and serfs 157. Serfdom A medieval village usually contained several classes of laborers. There might be a number of freemen, who paid a fixed rent, either in money or produce, for the use of their land. Then there might also be a few slaves in the lord's household or at work on his domain. By this time, however, slavery had about died out in western Europe. Most of the peasants were serfs. Serfdom represented a stage between slavery and freedom. A slave belonged to his master; he was bought and sold like other chattels. A serf had a higher position, for Nature of serfdom he could not be sold apart from the land nor could his holding be taken from him. He was fixed to the soil. On the other hand a serf ranked lower than a freeman, because he could not change his abode, nor marry outside the manor, nor bequeath his goods, without the permission of his lord. Obligations of the serf The serf did not receive his land as a free gift; for the use of it he owed certain duties to his master. These took chiefly the form of personal services. He must labor on the lord's domain for two or three days each week, and at specially busy seasons, such as ploughing and harvesting, he must do extra work. At least half his time was usually demanded by the lord. The serf had also to make certain payments, either in money or more often in grain, honey, eggs, or other produce. When he ground the wheat or pressed the grapes which grew on his land, he must use the lord's mill, the lord's wine-press, and pay the customary charge. In theory the lord could tax his serfs as heavily and make them work as hard as he pleased, but the fear of losing his tenants doubtless in most cases prevented him from imposing too great burdens on them. Serfdom developed during the later centuries of the Roman Empire and in the early Middle Ages. It was well established by the time of Charlemagne. Most serfs seem to have been the descendants, or at least the successors, of Roman slaves, whose condition had gradually improved. The Origin of serf class was also recruited from the ranks of serfdom freemen, who by conquest or because of the desire to gain the protection of a lord, became subject to him. Serfdom, however, was destined to be merely a transitory condition. By the close of medieval times, the serfs in most parts of western Europe had secured their freedom.1 158. Decline of Feudalism Feudalism had a vigorous life for about five hundred years. Taking definite form early in the ninth century, it flourished throughout the later Middle Ages, but became Duration of decadent by the opening of the fourteenth century. feudalism As a system of local government, feudalism tended to pass away when the rulers in England, France, and Spain, and later in Germany and Italy, became powerful enough Forces to put down private warfare, execute justice, and opposed to maintain order everywhere in their dominions. The kings were always anti-feudal. We shall study in a later chapter 2 the rise of strong governments and centralized states in western Europe. feudalism: the kings Forces feudalism: the cities As a system of local industry, feudalism could not survive the great changes of the later Middle Ages, when reviving trade, commerce, and manufactures had begun to lead to the increase of wealth, the growth of markets, opposed to and the substitution of money payments for those in produce or services. Flourishing cities arose, as in the days of the Roman Empire, freed themselves from the control of the nobles, and became the homes of liberty and democracy. The cities, like the kings, were always anti-feudal. We shall deal with their development in a subsequent chapter.3 There was still another anti-feudal force, namely, the Roman Church. It is true that many of the higher clergy The Church were feudal lords, and that even the monasteries and feudalism owned vast estates which were parceled out among tenants. See chapter xxiii. 1 See page 612. 2 See chapter xxii. Nevertheless, the Roman Church as a universal organization, including men of all ranks and classes, was necessarily opposed to feudalism, a local and an aristocratic system. The work and influence of this Church will now engage our attention. Studies 1. Write a brief essay on feudal society, using the following words: lord; vassal; castle; keep; dungeon; chivalry; tournament; manor; and serf. 2. Explain the following terms: vassal; fief; serf; "aid "; homage; squire; investiture; and "relief." 3. Look up the origin of the words homage, castle, dungeon, and chivalry. 4. "The real heirs of Charlemagne were from the first neither the kings of France nor those of Italy or Germany; but the feudal lords." Comment on this statement. 5. Why was the feudal system not found in the Roman Empire in the East during the Middle Ages? 6. Why has feudalism been called "confusion roughly organized"? 7. Contrast feudalism as a political system with (a) the classical city-states, (b) the Roman Empire, and (c) modern national states. 8. What was the effect of feudalism on the sentiment of patriotism? 9. What are some of the advantages and disadvantages of primogeniture as the rule of inheritance? 10. Explain these phrases: "to be in hot water;" "to go through fire and water;" and "to haul over the coals." 11. Compare the oaths administered to witnesses in modern courts with medieval oaths. 12. Why was war the usual condition of feudal society? 13. Compare the "Peace of God" with the earlier "Roman Peace" (Pax Romana). 14. Mention some modern comforts and luxuries which were unknown in feudal castles. 15. What is the present meaning of the word "chivalrous"? How did it get that meaning? 16. Why has chivalry been called "the blossom of feudalism"? 17. Contrast the ideal of a chivalry with that of monasticism. 18. Show that the serf was not a slave or a "hired man" or a tenant-farmer paying rent. CHAPTER XIX THE PAPACY AND THE HOLY ROMAN EMPIRE, 962-1273 A.D.1 159. Characteristics of the Medieval Church A PRECEDING chapter dealt with the Christian Church in the East and West during the early Middle Ages. We learned something about its organization, belief, and wor- The Roman ship, about the rise and growth of the Papacy, Church 'about monasticism, and about that missionary campaign which won all Europe to Christianity. Our narrative extended to the middle of the eleventh century, when the quarrel between pope and patriarch led at length to the disruption of Christendom. We have now to consider the work and influence of the Roman Church during later centuries of the Middle Ages. The Church at the height of its power held spiritual sway over all western Europe. Italy and Sicily, the larger part of Spain, France, Germany, Hungary, Poland, the Territorial British Isles, Denmark, Sweden, Norway, and Ice- extent of the land yielded obedience to the pope of Rome. Church Membership in the Church was not a matter of free choice. All people, except Jews, were required to belong to it. A person joined the Church by baptism, a rite usually per- The Church formed in infancy, and remained in it as long as as universal he lived. Every one was expected to conform, at least outwardly, to the doctrines and practices of the Church, and anyone attacking its authority was liable to punishment by the state. as inter The presence of one Church throughout the western world furnished a bond of union between European peoples The Church during the age of feudalism. The Church took no heed of political boundaries, for men of all nationalities entered the ranks of the priesthood and joined national 1 Webster, Readings in Medieval and Modern History, chapter x, "Monastic Life in the Twelfth Century"; chapter xi, "St. Francis and the Franciscans." the monastic orders. Priests and monks were subjects of no country, but were "citizens of heaven," as they sometimes called themselves. Even difference of language counted for little in the Church, since Latin was the universal speech of the educated classes. One must think, then, of the Church as a great international state, in form a monarchy, presided over by the pope, and with its capital at Rome. Twofold Church The Church in the Middle Ages performed a double task. On the one hand it gave the people religious instruction and watched over their morals; on the other hand it duties of the played an important part in European politics and provided a means of government. Because the Church thus combined ecclesiastical and civil functions, it was quite unlike all modern churches, whether Greek, Roman, or Protestant. Both sides of its activities deserve, therefore, to be considered. 160. Church Doctrine and Worship In medieval times every loyal member of the Church accepted without question its authority in religious matters. The "The gate of Heaven" Church taught a belief in a personal God, all-wise, all-good, all-powerful, to know whom was the highest goal of life. The avenue to this knowledge lay through faith in the revelation of God, as found in the Scriptures. Since the unaided human reason could not properly interpret the Scriptures, it was necessary for the Church, through her officers, to declare their meaning and set forth what doctrines were essential to salvation. The Church thus appeared as the sole repository of religious knowledge, as "the gate of heaven." Salvation did not depend only on the acceptance of certain beliefs. There were also certain acts, called "sacraments," in which the faithful Christian must participate, if he was not to be cut off eternally from God. These acts formed channels of heavenly grace; they The sacramental system saved man from the consequences of his sinful nature and filled him with "the fullness of divine life." Since priests alone |