shape. Not less remarkable were the pointed shoes worn by men. The points finally got so long that they hindered walking, unless tied by a ribbon to the knees. Beards COSTUMES OF LADIES DURING THE LATER MIDDLE AGES The medieval noble of the twelfth century as a rule went clean shaven. To wear a beard was regarded as a sign of effeminacy in a man. The Bayeux Tapestry, for instance, shows the Normans mostly clean-shaven, while the English wear only moustaches. The introduction of long beards seems to have been due to contact with the East during the crusading period. It is a common error that bathing was seldom practiced in the Middle Ages. In the country districts river, lake, or pool Baths and met the needs of people used to outdoor life. The bathing hot air and vapor baths of the Byzantines were adopted by the Moslems and later, through the Moors and crusaders, were made known to western Europe. After the beginning of the thirteenth century few large cities lacked public bathing places. Medieval cookbooks show that people of means had all sorts of elaborate and expensive dishes. Dinner at a nobleman's house might include as many as ten or twelve courses, mostly 1 See the illustration, page 408. meats and game. Such things as hedgehogs, peacocks, spar rows, and porpoises, which would hardly tempt Food the modern palate, were relished. Much use was made of spices in preparing meats and gravies, and also for flavoring wines. Over-eating was a common vice in the Middle Ages, but the open-air life and constant exercise enabled men and women to digest the huge quantities of food they consumed. People in medieval times had no knives or forks and consequently ate with their fingers. Daggers also were employed to convey food to the mouth. Forks date from the Table end of the thirteenth century, but were adopted etiquette only slowly. As late as the sixteenth century German preachers condemned their use, for, said they, the Lord would not have given us fingers if he had wanted us to rely on forks. Napkins were another table convenience unknown in the Middle Ages. In the absence of tea and coffee, ale and beer formed the drink of the common people. The upper classes regaled themselves on costly wines. Drunkenness was as com- Drinking mon and as little reprobated as gluttony. The monotony of life in medieval Europe, when the nobles had little to do but hunt and fight, may partly account for the prevailing inebriety. But doubtless in large measure it was a Teutonic characteristic. The Northmen were hard drinkers, and of the ancient Germans a Roman writer states that "to pass an entire day and night in drinking disgraces no one." This habit of intoxication survived in medieval Germany, and the AngloSaxons and Danes introduced it into England. 1 Central period of the Our survey of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries has now shown us that these two hundred years deserve to be called the central period of the Middle Ages. When the Arabs had brought the culture of the Orient to Spain and Sicily, when the Northmen after their wonderful expansion had settled down in Normandy, England, and other countries, and when the peoples of western Europe, 1 Tacitus, Germania, 22. Middle Ages whether as peaceful pilgrims or as warlike crusaders, had visited Constantinople and the Holy Land, men's minds received a wonderful stimulus. The intellectual life of Europe was "speeded up," and the way was prepared for the even more rapid advance of knowledge in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, as the Middle Ages passed into modern times. Studies 1. Look up on the map between pages 358-359 the following places where Gothic cathedrals are found: Canterbury, York, Salisbury, Reims, Amiens, Chartres, Cologne, Strassburg, Burgos, Toledo, and Milan. 2. Look up on the map facing page 636 the location of the following medieval universities: Oxford, Montpellier, Paris, Orléans, Cologne, Leipzig, Prague, Padua, and Salamanca. 3. Explain the following terms: scholasticism; canon law; alchemy; troubadours; Provençal language; transept; choir; flying buttress; werewolf; and mumming. 4. Who were St. Thomas Aquinas, Abelard, Gratian, Irnerius, and Roger Bacon? 5. Show how Latin served as an international language in the Middle Ages. Name two artificial languages which have been invented as a substitute for Latin. 6. What is meant by saying that "French is a mere patois of Latin"? 7., In what parts of the world is English now the prevailing speech? 8. Why has Siegfried, the hero of the Nibelungenlied, been called the "Achilles of Teutonic legend"? 9. What productions of medieval literature reflect aristocratic and democratic ideals, respectively? 10. Distinguish between the Romanesque and Gothic styles of architecture. What is the origin of each term? 11. Compare the ground plans of a Greek temple (page 291), a Roman basilica (page 284), and a Gothic cathedral (page 562). 12. Contrast a Gothic cathedral with a Greek temple, particularly in regard to size, height, support of the roof, windows, and decorative features. 13. Why is there some excuse for describing a Gothic building as "a wall of glass with a roof of stone"? 14. Do you see any resemblance in structural features between a Gothic cathedral and a modern "sky-scraper"? 15. Mention some likenesses between medieval and modern universities. 16. Mention some important subjects of instruction in modern universities which were not treated in those of the Middle Ages. 17. Why has scholasticism been called "a sort of Aristotelian Christianity"? 18. Look up the original meaning of the words "jovial," "saturnine," "mercurial," "disastrous," "contemplate," and "consider." 19. Show the indebtedness of chemistry to alchemy and of astronomy to astrology. 20. Mention some common folk tales which illustrate medieval superstitions. 21. Why was Friday regarded as a specially unlucky day? 22. Enumerate the most important contributions to civilization made during the Middle Ages. CHAPTER XXV THE RENAISSANCE1 209. Meaning of the Renaissance Later period of the Middle Ages THE fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, covering the later period of the Middle Ages, are commonly known as those of the Renaissance. This French word means Rebirth or Revival. It is a convenient term for all the changes in society, law, and government, in science, philosophy, and religion, in literature and art which gradually transformed medieval civilization into that of modern times. cus Renaissance The Renaissance, just because of its transitional character, cannot be exactly dated. Some Renaissance movements started before 1300 A.D. For instance, the study Limits of the of Roman law, as a substitute for Germanic toms, began toward the close of the eleventh century. The rise of European cities, with all that they meant for industry and commerce, belonged to about the same time. Other Renaissance movements, again, extended beyond 1500 A.D. Among these were the expansion of geographical knowledge, resulting from the discovery of the New World, and the revolt against the Papacy, known as the Protestant Reformation. The Middle Ages, in fact, came to an end at different times in different fields of human activity. Original home of the The name Renaissance applied, at first, only to the rebirth. or revival of men's interest in the literature and art of classical antiquity. Italy was the original home of this Renaissance. There it first appeared, there it found widest acceptance, and there it reached its highest development. From Italy the Renaissance gradually spread beyond the Alps, until it had made the round of western Europe. Renaissance 1 Webster, Readings in Medieval and Modern History, chapter xix, "A Scholar of the Renaissance"; chapter xx, "Renaissance Artists." Italian cities of the Renaissance Italy, at the beginning of the fourteenth century, was a land particularly favorable to the growth of learning and the arts. In northern Italy the great cities of Milan, Pisa, Genoa, Florence, Venice, and many others had early succeeded in throwing off their feudal burdens and had become independent, self-governing communities. Democracy flourished in them, as in the old Greek city-states. Noble birth counted for little; a man of ability and ambition might rise to any place. The fierce party conflicts within their walls stimulated mental activity and helped to make life full, varied, and intense. Their widespread trade and thriving manufactures made them prosperous. Wealth brought leisure, bred a taste for luxury and the refinements of life, and gave means for the gratification of that taste. People wanted to have about them beautiful pictures, statuary, furniture, palaces, and churches; and they rewarded richly the artists who could produce such things. It is not without significance that the birthplace of the Italian Renaissance was democratic, industrial, and wealthy Florence.1 Italy enjoyed another advantage over the other European countries in its nearness to Rome. Admiration for the ancient Influence of the classic tradition Roman civilization, as expressed in literature, art, and law, was felt by all Italians. Wherever they looked, they were reminded of the great past which once had been theirs. Nor was the inheritance of Greece wholly lost. Greek traders and the descendants of Greek colonists in Italy still used their ancient language; all through the medieval centuries there were Italians who studied Greek. The classic tradition thus survived in Italy and defied oblivion. In the Middle Ages Italy formed a meeting place of several civilizations. Byzantine influence was felt both in the north and in the south. The conquest of Sicily by the Arabs made the Italians familiar with the science, art, and poetry of this cultivated people. After the Normans had established themselves in south Byzantine, 1 See page 545 |