racy in his theory of inflammation. "Inflammation (says he) in my opinion may be defined, an augmentation of the vital powers of that part which is the seat of it. Sensibility there becomes more lively, mobility greater; and from this increase of sensibility and motion arise all the symptoms that denote the inflammatory state," p. 16.-Now this definition is bad, because it expresses none of the phenomena of inflammation, and still more, because it involves an hypothesis, which is contradicted by experience. Those morbid actions which constitute inflammation take place in different degrees, and in very opposite states of the system, and of the part. In some cases there is increased action of the vascular system, increased sensibility, &c. and in others the healthy actions are diminished, and an evident loss of power

exists.

The observations in the second section on the relation of physiology to the other sciences are just, and the author with great propriety has insisted on the utility and importance of comparative anatomy. So much cannot be said in praise of his account of the " system of the great sympathetic nerves." Let us hear what the author has thought worthy of republication on this subject:

"The great sympathetic nerves should be considered as a medium destined to unite the organs that are animated by the assimilating powers, and by means of which man grows, developes himself, and constantly repairs the continual loss from vital motion. They form a nervous system, very distinct from the system of the cerebral nerves; and as the latter are instruments of the functions by which we have a relation to external objects, so the great sympathetic nerves give motion and validity to the internal, assimilating, or digestive functions.

"Is not the nervous system of animals without vertebra, that floats in the cavities with the viscera they supply, entirely confined to the great sympathetic nerves? It distributes itself chiefly on the organs of internal life, the activity of which seems to increase in animals, in proportion to the weakness of their external senses, and power of loco-motion. If the great sympathetic nerves exist in all animals that have a distinct nervous system, do they not peculiarly contain the principle of this vegetative life, essential to the existence of every organized being, and to which belong the phenomena of digestion, absorption, the circulation, secretion, and of nutrition? Is it not, in fact, probable, that in man, the system of the great sympathetic nerves has the most important influence in a

We must confess that we are so dull of comprehension, or so fastidious, as to hesitate in coinciding with our author's sentiments upon this point. He appears to have formed this general conclusion in a hasty manner: it does not seem so clear, that because the sympathetic nerves are numerous, and perform very important purposes in the animal economy, that they form a separate and distinct system. The different parts of the whole body, and especially the nervous system, are so connected together, that no part can be said to be independent of the others. Some of the branches of the sympathetic nerves only serve as media of communication, and they have all an intimate relation to one centre, the brain. Like most theorists, M. Richerand has magnified the importance of these nerves, and makes them the seat of all our plea sures and pains. In answer to the ques tion about the use of these nerves in some animals, it may be remarked, first, that in animals without vertebra, there is no great sympathetic nerve. And 2dly, that the heart, stomach, and intestines, whose actions are involuntary in animals possessing sympathetic nerves, are immediately and powerfully influ enced by the communication with the brain being interrupted or cut off.

things are here said, but to little purChapter 1st, on Digestion.-Many pose. The author adopts the opinion, that this function is performed by a so lution of aliment in the gastric juice: he takes no notice of the different expla nations which have been proposed, he mentions no interesting experiments, and refers to no sources for farther information. This whole chapter might be read by any student, without his having an idea that Spallanzani ever lived, or that Stevens, Hunter, and Fordyce ever wrote. When speaking of the organs which se crete bile, M. Richerand has adopted the common error, in supposing that the hepatic artery only supplies blood necessary for the nourishment of the liver. He ought to have known that this ar tery contributes to the secretion of bile, as has been established by an accidental discovery of a singular termination of the vena porta in the vena cava. Under the article digestion many subjects are

included, such as hunger and thirst, mastication of the food, action of the intestines, excretion of the fæces, secretion of urine, physical and chemical properties of this fluid, and a few short remarks on the differences in the digestive organs in different animals.

The second chapter treats of absorption, in which there is nothing new or interesting to arrest attention. This account is chiefly taken from the valuable and splendid work of Mascagni. The doctrine of cutaneous absorption is cursorily noticed, but none of the objections to it are stated. The author is an advocate for absorption by the skin; his arguments, however, are not very convincing, nor indeed can any reasoning determine this matter, till we have more numerous experiments.

The third chapter on the circulation of the blood is more full and complete than any other it contains the principal facts, and gives the most general views relating to this subject. Among these there is a mixture of some absurdities, as in the following passage:

"From the time of Galen, the pulse has offered to physicians one of the principal means of distinguishing diseases. The force, regularity, equality of its motions, contrasted with its weakness, inequality, irregularity, and intermission, enable us to form a judgment of the kind and magnitude of a disease, of the powers of nature to effect a cure, of the organ particularly affected, of the time or period of the complaint, &c. No person has employed himself more successfully than Borden, on the doctrine of the pulse, considered in these points of view; his modifications indicative of the periods of disease, establish, in the opinion of this celebrated physician, as may be seen in his Recherches sur le Pouls par Rapport aux Crises, the pulse of crudity, of irritation, and of coction. Certain general characters indicate whether the affection occupy a part situated above or below the diaphragm; and from this is formed the distinction of superior and inferior pulses; and, lastly, peculiar characters denote the injury of each individual organ which constitutes the nasal, guttural, pectoral, stomachic, hepatic, intestinal, renal, uterine pulses, &c."

These distinctions are frivolous and rugatory, and in many there is no difference. It is impossible from the pulse alone to determine the seat of the disease, or the violence of the symptoms: in some cases the pulse is our best and surest guide, but in other instances of masked disease we learn nothing from attending exclusively to it. It was for

merly the custom to lay great stress on the number and frequency of pulsations; the Chinese physicians regulate their practice by attending to indications derived from this source alone; but amongst us, though the state of the vascular system deservedly engages considerable attention, many opinions relating to it have been wisely laid aside, with the self-sufficiency of the goldheaded cane and full-bottom wig.

Respiration forms the subject of the fourth chapter, and this leads to the consideration of animal heat, pulmonary transpiration, asphyxia, and certain phenomena connected with the action of the lungs. The quantity of air inhaled into the lungs of an adult, is stated generally to be from thirty to forty cubic inches, but it is said that some physiologists believe the volume of air inspired to be much less, and that Professor Gregory, of Edinburgh, teaches in his public lectures, that hardly two inches enter at each inspiration. No reference is made to the source of this information, which we are strongly disposed to contion is refuted by all the experiments sider incorrect, because such a calculamade by Jurin, Menzies, Lavoisier, and Davy. The quantity of air inspired will vary in different persons, according to the size, age, sex, &c. and even in the same person at different times; but the average capacity of the lungs may be stated at forty cubic inches. M. Richerand adopts the theory of Dr. Crawford; he has wholly omitted to mention the interesting experiments made by Lavoisier, Seguin, and Davy, and seems never to have heard of the speculations of Hassenfratz and La Grange.

The fifth and sixth chapters contain a short history of secretion and nutrition. The chemical analysis of the blood is very imperfectly given, and the author attributes properties to the halitus or vapour, to which it has no claim. It is stated also, that the red colour of the blood is occasioned by the presence of phosphate of lime; we suppose this to be a typographical error, or some false translation, although the same phrase is repeated. Probably the author means phosphate of iron.

The actions of the nervous system are considered at great length in the seventh chapter, under the title of sensations. The author has adduced some experiments made by himself (and they appear conclusive), to prove that the motions of

the brain, when exposed, are exclusively communicated to it by the pulsations of the arteries situated at its basis.

The eighth chapter is occupied with an account of muscular motion; and we here meet with some ingenious remarks on the preponderance of the flexor over he extensor muscles. The merit of this theory is claimed by M. Richerand, and he is certainly entitled to some praise for his ingenuity.

"The flexor muscles, therefore, have longer and more 'numerous fibres than the extensors; their insertion into bones is farther from the centre of their motions, under an angle more open, and which increases in proportion as the limbs are in a state of flexion: it is to these causes united that the flexors are indebted for the superiority they possess; and the disposition of articular surfaces, which are mostly inclined towards the side of flexure, is to be attributed to the great extent of motion effected by these

muscles.

"This preponderance of the flexor muscles varies according to the periods of age. In the foetus all parts are reflected on themselves without proportion. This convolution of the new individual on itself may be perceived from the time of early gestation, when it resembles a French bean, suspended by the umbilical chord in the midst of the liquor of the amnion; the embryo floats in a cavity, where it becomes progressively more confined as it advances towards the time of birth. This extraordinary flexion of parts, necessary for the product of conception, accommodates itself to the elliptical form of the uterus, and concurs to afford the muscles that effect it, the superiority which they maintain during the remainder of life.

"The new-born infant preserves in a remarkable manner the habits of gestation, but as it advances in growth it becomes less curved frequent pandiculations or stretchings denote the endeavour to establish a just proportion between the muscular powers. When the infant is able to stand erect, and left to itself, all its parts are in a state of semi-flexion, its walk tottering, continually pressing towards the point of support. But in middle life the preponderance of the flexors over the extensors become less apparent; man possesses the full and entire exercise of his loco-motive faculties, but as he advances

in age this vigour abandons him; the exten sor muscles gradually return to that state of relative debility, in which they were during

infancy, and become incapable of completing the action of standing in a firm and durable

manner.

"The state of our limbs during sleep resembles that of the foetus, which, according to Buffon's remarks, may be considered in a sound sleep: its cessation in man, as well as the generality of animals, is followed by frequent pandiculations. We stretch the limbs to restore to the extensors a degree of tone necessary for the functions that they are to Barthez refers the perform when awake. crowing and fluttering of wings, by which the cock announces his waking, to a similar purpose."

The three remaining chapters are on the voice and speech, on generation, on ages, temperaments, the varieties of the human species, &c. and these, with some observations on old age, the probabili. ties of human life, on death, and putrefaction, conclude the volume.

In composing these elements of physiology, M. Richerand has made ample use of the labours of others, and has added very little of his own. Except in two instances, we have not found an original observation relative to the ani mal economy: the author seldom rises above the quotation of a surgical case, and these are not much to the point. An elementary work ought to contain the principal and most striking facts ar ranged in a proper manner, and detailed in plain and simple language. In these respects the present work is very deficient; it may be found useful, however, to those who are desirous of becoming acquainted with some of the general doctrines of physiology, and it may serve as a work of reference to those who may want to refresh their memory with the rudiments of this science. We cannot say how faithful the translation may be, as we have not had an opportunity of comparing it with the original. Very little can be said in praise of its elegance and perspicuity. Many words occur like the following: musculosity, quiesce, cherubims, p. 29, &c.

dies, and of the phenomena exhibited by the different organs in health and disease. This is a mode of communicating knowledge, which the French seem very fond of; there is scarcely any subject which has not furnished them with un cours un dictionaire. Such collections have their use; they afford information and entertainment to most readers, and may give general notions to many, who have not opportunities to acquire all that knowledge which can only be obtained by more profound research and extensive enquiry. Dr. Burdin has executed his design with great diligence, he has collected together a variety of interesting and important facts, and condensed a vast body of information within the limits of three volumes. Although this work is said to be chiefly designed for medical students, the author, in a preliminary discourse, enlarges his ideas of its utility, and flatters himself that every intelligent person, by reading his book, will render himself master of the subjects on which it treats. He hopes to banish quackery by a more general diffusion of medical knowledge, and in this opinion he is not singular. The grounds of such expectations may reasonably be doubted. Instead of its being the means of putting an end to quackery, a superficial knowledge of diseases, a smattering of medical science, seems most likely to encourage it.

To say that a person who has learnt that the body is composed of bones, muscles, and nerves, &c. is best qualified to take care of his own health, and restore it when deranged, is like saying, that every soldier is duly qualified to repair his own firelock, if he happens to know that the barrel is made of iron, and the bullet is discharged by the sudden extrication of an elastic gas. Who purchase quack medicines? Who take these me dicines unnecessarily? Who are most frequently indisposed from imaginary complaints? Who neglect the precious moments for arresting the progress of acute and dangerous diseases? The readers of Buchan's Domestic Medicine, the family prescribers, and nostrum mongers. Quackery will continue as long as knaves and fools remain to dupe and be duped, and this probably as long as men continue "to wag their beards." One advantage of these popular views of medical subjects may be, to prevent sensible persons from being imposed upon by the grimace and affected sapience of ignorant

practitioners, in the same way as a general knowledge of the principles of law and justice, assisted by common sense, may prevent imposition by crafty and pettifogging attornies. Many persons consider themselves the best qualified to judge of their disorders by their sensations, which is a very equivocal test, because at the beginning of any disease the nervous system is generally affected, and false conceptions are produced in the mind. "Every man his own physician," is an unfortunate adage for many hypochondriacs, and besides it is a satire upon the medical profession.

This course of medical studies is divided into three parts:-the first comprehends the organic structure of the body, the osteology, the muscular and nervous system, the senses, the function of digestion, circulation, and generation. The second part includes the history of diseases; and the third part is occupied with physiological disquisitions on the vital functions, the action of the brain and nerves, &c.

In a work so very general as that of Dr. Burdin, which includes such a variety of topics, some faults and imperfections are to be expected. It would be tedious to enumerate all those which have attracted our notice; a few remarks may be sufficient to convey some notion of its defects, as well as its merits. The first volume contains many curious facts with regard to the anatomical structure of the lower animals, selected from the valuable lectures on comparative anatomy, by Cuvier and Dumeril. In describing the mus cles, the author has employed the nomenclature of Chaussier and Dumas. Many objections may be started to the adoption of these terms, they are difficult to be understood, and still more so to be remembered. Winslow long ago showed the propriety of distinguishing muscles by names which marked their origin and insertion. But Chaussier and Dumas, in adopting this principle, have carried it too far. In framing their new nomenclature, they seem to have forgotten one of the great purposes of language, that of dispatch. Their compound names in general are bad descriptions, they are with difficulty pronounced or remembered, and what is worse, they do not apply to other animals besides man; for many muscles that have similar situations and functions, have not the same origin and insertion in all animals. In

the context, the new names alone are employed; but at the end of each chapter, tables of the bones, muscles, nerves, and blood-vessels are given, and both the old and new names are mentioned.

The account of diseases is chiefly confined to a detail of the principal symptoms; the causes, diagnosis, prognosis, and method of cure is seldom noticed, and only in a superficial manner. This diminishes the value of the work to medical students; for no information is given on those points on which they are most desirous of acquiring some instruction. It does not appear well judged to consider the functions of parts separate from a description of their anatomical structure; the third volume should have been the continuation of the first.

Dr. Burdin would certainly have appeared to greater advantage, if he had written in a more simple and unaffected style, and if he had fallen into the hands of a better translator. The French idiom is so closely adhered to in the translation that some passages are almost unintelligible, and many absurd and bombast expressions have been servilely copied.

For instance: "the lungs become hard as if carnified," p. 89. vol. 2. " the urine becomes spumous," and in another place "sanguinolent." We are told of the osteocope pains" in syphilis, and the vulvouterine conduit," &c. &c. It is to be regretted that persons who undertake to translate from one language into another, appear so often ignorant of both, especially of their own mother tongue. Notwithstanding these defects, the work upon the whole is entitled to commendation. It labours, however, under the general fault of all French publications, the want of reference to any author, or to the sources for farther information.

There is one assertion made by our author, which, as it is quite erroneous, ought not to be passed unnoticed. He states the temperature of arterial blood to be 40° of the centigrade thermometer, which is equal to 104° Fahrenheit's scale. Now it is well known, that the average tem perature of the blood in health is 96° or 98°, and that the animal heat seldom ex, ceeds 102°, even in violent and acute fe brile disorders.

IN our last volume, we had occasion to notice a very valuable work on the subject of the teeth, by Dr. Blake. The present, which is like that, the production of a man of observation, and practical experience, affords an interesting view of the various phænomena of dentition, which in most particulars agree with those which we had occasion to notice in the article to which we have referred. Mr. Fox does not seem to admit the adhesion of the membrane to the neck of the tooth, after the ossification is completed, and therefore describes the membrane and gum as being equally subject to pressure by the rising of the tooth; a circumstance which, according to Dr. Blake, only applies to the gum. The descriptions of the author are perspicuous, and the plates by which they are illustrated are numerous, well executed,

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