horizontally on the glass. This explains all that is meant in the definitions numbered 5, 6, 7, 8, 9. If there be any other lines of walls or buildings to be seen through the window which are at right angles with it, these lines have the point of sight for their vanishing point; just as the retiring lines of the covers of the books at A and B in Fig. 26, which are at right angles to the edge of the table on which they are lying have their vanishing point in the point of sight, while those that are not at right angles to the edge of the table, as at E and F, have their vanishing points to the right and left of the point of sight. This observation will explain Defi nition 10. Definition 11 will come under our notice hereafter, when we will go more into the consideration of the above fixed principles with the help of diagrams. An object can be placed in two positions, to which the rules of perspective are applicable parallel and angular. Parallel perspective is a HL b k PS and VP d m HL same way with the other lines d ge h and c i. Now observe, if all these lines were produced towards the line of sight, H L, they would meet at the PS. The other parallel lines, k, l, m, etc., must be carefully arranged according to the principles we have already laid down in our introductory lessons. The pupil may naturally inquire if there are not some perspective rules for regulating the retiring horizontal distances of objects, as well as their heights. We answer, there are. We do not intend to avoid this question, but put it off for the present, lest the pupil should become too early involved in technicalities that belong especially to geometrical perspectivea branch of drawing to be considered hereafter. With reference to the retiring lines of the pavement (Fig. 28), we have a fitting illustration in a railroad; probably the pupil has observed when standing on a railway bridge and looking down the line, that the rails as they retired seemingly converged to a point in the distance; that point would be the vanishing Fig.28 h term used in reference to objects of a rectangular form, such as the interior of a room, a cube, etc., when these objects are so placed that their retiring sides are at a right angle with the picture plane, P P, and the remaining sides are parallel to the same, as in Fig. 27 (a). Angular perspective alludes to objects of the same form BO placed that all the sides retire, as in Fig. 27 (b), which is the plan of a room in angular perspective, having one of its angles towards the picture plane P P, and its four sides retiring. point; therefore, in drawing lines so placed, our having a vanishing point renders the task much easier, and insures that which is so very desirable, a truthful result. Let Fig. 28 be practised over and over again, until the various lines which compose it can be drawn with ease and readiness. Fig. 29 is the same, with the addition of a wall on the left. After the last example the manner of drawing it will be self-evident. Fig. 30, a flight of steps; the retiring edges of the steps are all drawn towards the P S. The other examples require no further explanation. Should Parallel perspective is the more simple of the two, and easier to be understood, we | the pupil in going along with us through these lessons have made therefore commence with that. The first example is a pavement (Fig. 28). Draw the horizontal line, H L, and place upon it a point marked P s and v P (point of sight and vanishing point). The reason that it is both the point of sight and the vanishing point has been explained in Definition 10. Then mark the distance of a from P 8, through a draw the line b c, and divide it in the points d and e; place the pencil on P S, and draw it over the paper through b to f, mark f, join bf, proceed precisely in the some failures, and found some difficulties, there is no doubt that most of them may be attributed to one great neglect which all beginners so readily fall into, that is, the not "marking in the distances" before they attempt to draw the lines. It is the common failing with the majority of beginners, that they attempt to draw the lines without first arranging their positions. We have said quite enough of the practical way of proceeding with the arrangement of lines, but once more, let the attention of the pupil be ever directed to the "whereabouts" of the lines of his drawing. LESSONS IN ENGLISH.-III. SIMPLE PROPOSITIONS. THE PARTS OF SPEECH. As, in English nouns, there are at the most only two cases, so are we without an objective or accusative case. Yet sentences in English, as in Latin, have their object. That object must be recognised. Let it be called the object of the proposition, for so it is; in any given instance let it be termed the object of the verb, for it is the object of the verb. Here you must carefully distinguish between a case and a relation. A case denotes a change in a noun corresponding to the change in its relation. This you will see in these two propositions: (1) Deus fecit mundum God made the world. | (2) Mundus factus est a Deo The world was made by God. Now, without knowing Latin you may clearly understand what case means, and learn that in English we have no objective case. The Deus of number 1 becomes Deo in number 2; but in both, the English word God remains the same, though in the former, is in what is commonly called the nominative, and in the latter in what is commonly called the ablative case. Look also at mundus and mundum; you see that the nominative mundus is, in the objective or accusative case, changed into mundum. Here you clearly have two cases, but the English word world represents both. Consequently, if world is in the nominative it is not also in the objective case, for there is no alteration of form whatever. Yet in the latter case there is a change of relation; for while in number 1 world is the object, in number 2 it is the subject of the proposition. The English, then, does not conform to the Latin custom of expressing diversity of relations in nouns by diversity of form, or does so only in a limited degree. In fact, the tendency of the English language has long been to drop the terminations and inflexions which it borrowed from its Anglo-Saxon parent. The tendency has for ages continued to become more and more strong. It is a tendency which deserves encouragement, for in proportion as it is effectual, it gives freedom and power to the language, and makes the acquisition of it easy, and the diffusion of it rapid. I have intimated that propositions have each an object as well as a subject. Such is generally the case, and such is the case more widely than may at first appear. In our standard phrase Alfred reads, no object is expressed. And the statement may be made without any clear reference to an object. Verbs in which there is no reference, or no clear and obvious reference to an object, are called intransitive verbs-that is, verbs the action of which does not (intransitive-in, not; trans, across; eo, I go) pass over to an object. Alfred sleeps, Alfred runs, Alfred rides, supply other instances of intransitive verbs; because in each case the action remains with the subject. But these and most other intransitive verbs may become transitive by having an object placed after them; e.g.— INTRANSITIVE. INTRANSITIVE. TRANSITIVE. Object. Object. Alfred sleeps. Alfred rides a fine horse. an. called the indefinite article, inasmuch as it leaves it indefinite Alfred soon reads TO ME the obscure writing and manuscript. Me is a pronoun, as we found he to be. Me, you see, holds the place of a noun. Me is the objective case corresponding to the nominative case I. Our pronouns, as you here see, have some diversities of case, for in them you find varying forms corresponding to varieties of meaning. The other word just addednamely, to, is called a preposition. The word preposition signifies, according to its Latin element, that which is put before; a preposition, then, is a word put before a noun; and it is put before a noun in order to modify its signification, or mark the relation in which the noun stands to another word, or to other words; e.g.— where to, from, with, and of are prepositions. In the ordinary list of the parts of speech stands the participle. This word, of Latin origin, denotes the partaker (from pars, a part, and capio, I take). The participle is so denominated because it partakes of the qualities of the verb and the adjective. Thus shining is a participle from the verb to shine. It may also be employed as an adjective. Thus, PARTICIPLE. The sun shining disperses the clouds. ADJECTIVE. The shining sun dazzles the eyes. The right of the participle to be accounted a separate part of speech has been contested not without reason. Perhaps less valid is the claim of the interjection. An interjection (inter, If, however, propositions in general have an object, then we must between, and jacio, I cast) is a sound of surprise, or sorrow, add an object to our grammatical formula; thus: SUBJECT. Alfred PREDICATE. The grammatical formula is thus made complete. The verb reads is, as we have seen, equivalent in grammar (or logic) to the form is good; where the former is the copula, and the latter the attribute; so that an attribute with its copula is equivalent to the verb and its object, in forming the predicate of a proposition. The proposition which, as it stands, has all the essential parts of a proposition, may receive additions in order to express modifications of the meaning. Introduce and, then it runs, Alfred reads writing and manuscript. thrown out under the impulse of strong and sudden emotion, as O! Oh! Ah! and is with little propriety placed among the forms of articulate speech. Let us introduce a participle into our model The form is thus seen to comprise nine parts of speech. If the interjection, or exclamation, is to be reckoned a part of speech, it may be prefixed in the shape of Yes! Here, then, we find a condensed view of all the parts of speech, and in the remarks by which the view has been prefaced and prepared, lies the kernel of the entire English Grammar. If you have gone with me understandingly thus far, you will have no difficulty in following me to the end, for having developed these general facts and ▲ is called an article (properly in Latin a little joint). A is principles, I have now only to take up each part of speech in This particle and is termed a conjunction. Conjunctions (Latin, eum, with, and jungo, I join) join together words and sentences. And, in this case, unites manuscript with writing. Before writing insert a; then the proposition stands thus: Alfred reads a writing. succession, and, in connection with it, enter into such particulars as may appear desirable with a view to my object. Before I close the chapter, however, I will add a few general remarks respecting the actual classification, which bears the name of the nine (or ten) parts of speech. The aim of the elassification is to arrange under separate heads all the words of the English (or any other) language. Now a good classification has two qualities: first, it is exhaustive; secondly, it is distinc. hre. It is exhaustive-that is, it comprises and places under some suitable head all the facts. It is distinctive-that is, it makes such clear and sharp distinctions as to place the several facts each under its own head, without confounding similar facts together, or putting under one head facts which may as properly stand under another head. The classification under review is neither exhaustive nor distinctive. It is not exhaustive, for it leaves out the infinitive mood, which has as good a right to be called a part of speech as the participle. It is not distinctive, for the term adjective makes no distinction where a distinction exists, and the term participle makes a distinction where no distinction is required. Indeed, the classification is wholly unscientific, being based not on a principle, but on vague and general views. Something less objectionable may be offered in the following words. (7) (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (8) (9) And lo! Stanley rising quickly caused great wrath in the king. 1. Conjunction. 2. Interjection. 3. Noun. 4. Participle. 5. Adverb. 6. Verb. 7. Adjective. 8. Preposition. 9. Article. In the last example, one part of speech is omitted to exercise the mind of the student, who is also expected to effect the reduction of the proposition to the name of being and the name of action. Let the reader carefully study and analyse the following sentences — 1. Propositions without an object. Birds sing. Cows graze. Rabbits burrow. Dogs fight. Children play. 2. Propositions with an object. The sun lights the earth. The trees produce fruit. The rain waters the meadows. Storms purify the air. The universe proclaims its Author. Qualifying words may be added at will, as— 3. Propositions with a subject and object qualified. overcharge all their goods. A diligent scholar learns all his lessons. My young brother teased the little animals. Avaricious tradesmen I subjoin some fragments to be made into complete sentences:1. Propositions lacking subjects. aids his sick mother. leads a blind man. neglect their - promises a rich harvest. 2. Propositions lacking objects. Disobedient children deservo- The proud despise cover- A bad child grieves- An honest debtor pays 3. Propositions lacking verbs. the younger ones. The father- his incorrigible the neighbourhood. The police public order. tender mother. The divine Saviour Speech corresponds to the realities which it represents. Those realities are thoughts and things. Now, thoughts and things may be reduced to three classes:-1, Objects; 2, qualities of objects; 3, actions. Consequently, the essential parts of speech are the noun, the adjective, and the verb. But objects and their qualities are the same things differently viewed. We may therefore strike out qualities. Thus we have two classes leftnamely, the noun and the verb. Verbs, however, are the names of action, as nouns are the names of being. Hence language rebuke resolves itself into names. We may, then, declare that speech is made up of names. These names may be expanded and divided into 1, names of being, or nouns; 2, names of action, or verbs; and 3, names of qualities, or adjectives. Under the last head, or names of qualities, may stand other parts of speech, for the adverb names the quality of the action of the verb, and the article names the extent in which the noun is to be taken. The term particles has not inappropriately been applied to adverbs and conjunctions, for. to a considerable degree they appear to be parts (particles-that is, little parts) or fragments of once existing nouns and verbs. If, however, our analysis of language into names of being and names of action is correct, then the sentence which, as given above, contains all the nine parts of speech, may be reduced to two; as, The eldest sister - our It may here be necessary, by anticipation, to inform the totally SINGULAR: A boy loves; the house stands; the duck swims. The rule might be put in another form, as, when the noun has an LESSONS IN GEOGRAPHY.-III. NOTIONS OF THE GREEKS AND ROMANS. THE desire for nautical expeditions, which, under the excitement of commercial enterprise, had begun to spread among the nations, was restrained by the conquests of the Romans. These conquests, however, if they did not extend the boundaries of the known world, at least enriched the domain of geographical knowledge with new facts, and more exact than those which had been collected and taken for granted by the writers of former ages. The three Punic (Carthaginian) wars, the Illyrian war, the contests with the Gauls, the expeditions against Spain, and those of Etius Gallus into Arabia and Ethiopia, all contributed, in their turn, to give to this science a more positive character and more varied details. Polybius, about 150 years before the age of Hipparchus, gave a description of the world which, notwithstanding his numerous errors, evinced remarkable progress in the knowledge of the globe. The new acquisitions of the Romans, and of Mithridates Eupator, the campaigns of Julius Cæsar in Gaul and in Britain, rendered accessible the knowledge of countries hitherto but partially explored, or altogether unknown. Posidonius, a Syrian, resident at Rhodes, endeavoured to correct the measurement of the earth's circumference formerly made by Eratosthenes. He observed that when the star Canopus, in the constellation Argo, became visible in the horizon of Rhodes, it was elevated seven degrees and a half above the horizon of Alexandria. He supposed these places to be under the same meridian, and, from the reckoning of navigators, he found the distance between them to be 5,000 stadia. Now, seven degrees and a half being the forty-eighth part of a great circle of the sphere, this gives the circumference of the earth equal to 240,000 stadia. This was a nearer approximation to the truth than that of Eratosthenes, but it was founded on erroneous data; for the arc of the great circle between the two places above mentioned was only about 5° 15', and the difference between their two meridians was rather more than 20 Strabo, who flourished under the reign of Augustus Cæsar, corrected many errors of the geographers who preceded him, and made some of his own. The limits of his knowledge of the world were, on the north, Ierne or Ireland, and the mouth of the Elbe. He denied the existence of Thule, and asserted that the earth was not habitable at the distance of 4,000 stadia north of Britain. On the east, he considered Ceylon, or Taprobane and Thinæ, the borders of the world, and it is doubtful whether his knowledge of it extended as far as the mouths of the Ganges. He knew the western coast of Africa minds of men for a period of no less than twelve centuries of the history of the world. When we consider the advanced state of the arts and sciences in the age of Augustus Cæsar, at least compared with those which preceded it, we cannot but wonder at the imperfect state of geographical knowledge which existed in the Roman world at this period. Horace considered Great Britain and the Thames as the confines of the earth; and Virgil, as we have already remarked, placed the source of the Nile in India. The geographical productions of Dionysius Periegetes and of Pomponius Mela, written within a period of fifty years after the Christian era, contain nothing worthy of notice, being mere compilations of what was then known, and by no means improved. When the legions of the Emperor Claudius Cæsar, A.D. 40, marched to the conquest of Britain, this country was a new world to the Romans. The fleet of Agricola, thirty-five years afterwards, circumnavigated Scotland, explored the surrounding seas, and re-discovered the famous Thule. But even at this epoch Great Britain was still a mysterious country; Tacitus as far as Cape Nun. But he partook of the error of those who represented the Caspian Sea as united to the Northern Ocean; and he rejected the positive information of Herodotus on this point. He acknowledged little regard for the authority of this ancient historian, and his doubt on the subject of the voyages of Pytheas, Hanno, and Eudoxus, showed his ignorance of many important geographical questions. Strabo adopted the division of the earth into climates recognised by Greek and Roman authors previous to his time. Long before him, indeed, as well as after him, the globe was divided into five zones, namely, two frigid or frozen zones near the poles, one torrid or central zone scorched by the sun and extending along the equatorial line on each side of it, and two others called the temperate zones, occupying the rest of the world. The last-named were considered to be the only habitable portions of the globe; and as to the torrid zone, it was supposed to be condemned, on account of its fiery climate, not only to eternal solitude, but to present an invincible obstacle to the exploration of the countries situated beyond the equator. It will afford an illustration of the force of those ideas which prevailed on the subject of the zones of the globe, and on the relative position of the great divisions of the earth, when we reflect on the fact that they maintained their ground in the says it was bounded on the east by Germany, on the south by Gaul, and on the west by Spain. As to Ireland, he places it midway between Spain and Great Britain. The interior of Germany became known to the Romans in consequence of their active commerce with certain northern parts of Europe, which arose from the passion of the Roman ladies for succinum or yellow amber. In the east, a discovery of very great importance advanced the progress of navigation and geography. Hippalus, about the middle of the first century, established the fact of the periodicity of the monsoons, or trade-winds, in the Indian Ocean, which from that period has regulated the motions of the western navigators to India and the Asiatic Archipelago. On the south, the expedition of the Consul Suetonius Paulinus into the country of Sejelmissa, on the borders of the Sahara, or Great Desert of Africa, disclosed those parts of the modern Morocco and Algeria which extend southwards, from the southern side of Mount Atlas to the confines of the sun-scorched desert. The campaign of Cornelius Balbus in a neighbouring and parallel region, was accompanied with still more interesting results. The Roman army set out for Tripoli, traversed the desert, penetrated into Fezzan, and advanced even into the country visited by Messrs. Denham and Clapperton in 1822, that is, to the vicinity of Bornou. Of the scientific information gained by these enterprises, the celebrated Caius Secundus Pliny availed himself, in his Natural History. He also knew how to dip with considerable discernment into the writings of the Greeks; but he appears not to have considered it necessary to consult the work of Strabo. From the information he had obtained in this way, he assigned to the different quarters of the world then known the following magnitudes :-To Europe, one-third; to Asia, one-fourth; and to Africa one-fifth of the whole. Marinus of Tyre, who preceded Ptolemy, was distinguished for his geographical knowledge. He took advantage of all ancient and contemporary writers to compose a complete treatise on the subject of geography and maps; and he even prepared new editions of his books, corrected and improved in proportion as he obtained more exact information; but it is to be regretted that these have not reached us. At last appeared, about the middle of the second century, the famous Ptolemy, who lived at Alexandria in Egypt, and taught astronomy there. His system of astronomy and geography, which stood unimpeached for about twelve centuries, and received the name of the Ptolemaic system from its author, was not superseded till Copernicus appeared; and notwithstanding his errors, due more to the ignorance of mankind than to himself, his name is still revered as a geographer and astronomical observer. His work entitled the Megale Syntaxis, or Great Construction," is a monument of his labour and his learning. He examined the ratio of the length of the gnomon or style of the sun-dial to its shadow at the equinoxes and the solstices; he calculated eclipses; he investigated the calculations founded on the difference of climate, and carefully consulted the reports of travellers and navigators. He reduced his information and observations into a regular system, and expressed the positions of places by longitude and latitude, after the manner of Hipparchus. His great work consists nearly of an elementary picture of the earth, in which its figure and size, and the positions of places on its surface, are determined. It contains only a very short outline of the division of countries, with scarcely any historical notice. It is supposed that a detailed account was added to this outline, but it has not reached us. His geography is contained in eight books, and is certainly more scientific than any previous work on the subject. He taught how to determine the longitude by lunar eclipses, and by this method ascertained that of many places with tolerable accuracy. According to Ptolemy, the limits of the world were Thule on the north, and the Prassum Promontorium on the south, the former being, most probably, some part of Norway, and the latter some unknown point south-west of Madagascar. Its limits on the west were the Fortunate Isles, now the Canaries; and on the east, Thine in Sinæ or China. He rejected the theory of all preceding geographers, who represented the world as surrounded by an impassable ocean on all sides; and he replaced it by an indefinite expanse of unknown land. He rejected the true reports of circumnavigation of Africa, and extended its limits southward beyond all reasonable bounds. | Beloor Mountains, and reached the celebrated Lithinos Pyrgos, or "Stone Tower," a station whose site is still a doubtful question among geographers. From this station to the frontier of Serica was a seven months' hard and perilous journey. The description which Ptolemy gives of Serica corresponds more exactly to China than any other country; and his account of the manners and customs of the inhabitants identifies it still more. Moreover, the staple commodity of this overland trade was silk, for which China has been celebrated from time immemorial. Ptolemy appears to have had a considerable knowledge of Hindostan or India, both within and beyond the Ganges; a knowledge said to be superior to that of the moderns till within the limits of the present century. With regard to Africa, this statement may just be reversed. But, on the whole, his work must be considered a singular monument of industry, and a valuable book of reference in all matters relating to the ancient geography of the world. 40. E, ê, CIRCUMFLEX.—Name, aí; sound, like the letters ai in the English word stair. É has a longer and broader sound than è. The mouth must be opened wider in pronouncing the former than the latter. In ordinary reading and common conversation, the difference between é and è is hardly perceptible. Still there is a difference; just the difference between pronouncing e like the letters ai in the English word stair with the mouth half opened, and pronouncing the same letters in the same word with the mouth well opened, and also prolonging the sound. Practice will demonstrate this. FRENCH. EEEFFE Crêpe Dépêche With Europe, Ptolemy was tolerably well acquainted; and he described Germany and Sarmatia with some degree of accuracy. He knew the Ems, the Weser, the Elbe, the Oder, and the Vistula. He calls Jutland the Cimbric Chersonese or Peninsula, and the Baltic, the Sarmatic Ocean; but he failed Bête in his account of this inland sea. He was better acquainted Crême with the south of Russia in Europe, with the Tanais, the Borysthenes, and the Euxine, or Black Sea. In his description of the Mediterranean there are many errors; but his account is more accurate with them all than that of any previous geographer. In regard to Asia, his knowledge was obscure and unsatisfactory, though some features can be still identified with fact. Here he described the "Golden Chersonese," and the Magnus Sinus, or Great Bay of India. These appear to have been the IndoChinese countries of Ava, Pegu, and Malacca, with their adjacent gulfs or bays; and Thine, which he places at this remote corner, is supposed to be Siam, rather than any place in China. The Serica of Ptolemy in the north of Asia is supposed, with good reason, to be China, which was reached by great trading caravans, which proceeded from Byzantium (or Constantinople), across Asia Minor, crossing the Euphrates at Hierapolis, and passing through Media, by way of Ecbatana to Hecatompylos, the capital of Parthia. Their next route was through Hyrcania, Aria, Margiana, and Bactria, whence they ascended the table-land of the interior of Asia, passed over the Montes Comedorum, or Extrême is Kraip Aitr' To Extreme. FRENCH. PRONUN. ENGLISH. For-rai Forest. Maim Prêcher Prai-shay To preach. Prai Raiv Tait Head. Ready. |