LESSONS IN DRAWING.-XVI. FOREGROUNDS-HIGH LIGHTS-SETTING DRAWINGS, ETC. IN continuation of our remarks upon Foregrounds, we introduce in this lesson a group of dock-leaves. In the drawing, Fig. 108, we have shown how the principles we endeavoured to explain in the last lesson are to be carried out. The leaf in front represents in itself a summary of our observations. Notice the projecting part receiving the highest light; the dark cast shadow underneath being the strongest in the drawing. Notice, also, the cast shadow across the leaf (caused by the one on the left, which throws the under-leaf back, and brings out the one in light), commencing strongly near the high light, and gradually becoming

will give additional character and truthfulness. It may not be necessary that these stems should be completed in the 2nished drawing, as probably their whole extent may not be seen; but the slight indication of their whereabouts may be useful for the purpose of adjusting the foliage according to the class of tree to be represented. This process is to be followed throughout the whole drawing. This, which we will call the first stage, must be done faintly, so that, with india-rubber-or, what is better for the softer kinds of paper, bread-crumbs-these marks may be weakened when the second stage is ready for commencement. In this portion of the work there must be no indecision, particulars must be entered into, especially those upon which the light falls. Amongst these will be found many that owe their

lower in tone as it recedes; this, together with the manner of drawing the curved lines on the surfaces of the leaves, tends to give the perspective, and consequently assists in this way to determine the size of the leaf. Examples of this kind can be so easily obtained from Nature, that we prefer to leave the pupil to select them for himself, advising him to preserve them for use as we have recommended, and, when drawing from them, to allow his mind to recur to the previous remarks upon the principles we have laid before him, which apply not only to the drawing of a simple weed or dock-leaf, but have their neverfailing influence upon all subjects admissible in art. In the drawing of trees and the larger kinds of shrubs, we must urge the practice of being particularly careful of the outline, the first process of which must be confined to the general proportions and positions of the parts in light; and, at the same time, where it is possible, trace by a faint line the course of the stems, which

prominence to sharp, clear terminations; and the distinctness of their forms will be in proportion to the amount of light which falls upon them. The stems previously and slightly traced may now receive in those parts in sight all the forcible and distinctive qualities they demand, even to the peculiarities observable upon the bark. At all times avoid a multiplicity of lines when one only will be sufficient. When we see, as we frequently do in the early attempts of beginners, a number of lines of all lengths and thicknesses muddled together, we can only attribute the practice to doubt and uncertainty; they are waiting to see the effect before they can make up their minds as to the one right line required. Such a proceeding indicates weakness, and creates confusion. If we were to extend our instructions beyond the single subject of a tree, and include the whole landscape generally, we could only repeat what has been said before, as our remarks are equally applicable to distances and mountains, where it

would be a great mistake not to be especially careful in their forms and outlines. These lines must not be strong, but firm and decisive, and the more simple the better; all darker lines must be reserved for the foreground. The method of securing the lights upon trees, which we have shown in Fig. 109, will explain to the pupil the manner of proceeding more clearly than words can do. In his practice we recommend him first to copy parts of the example, and make separate and repeated studies of those portions which, as he proceeds, he will find to be most

with it cover down the whole of the part intended to be white; when dry, proceed to the completion of the drawing. It will not in the least matter if the lead pencil should pass over the part gummed, it will not have any effect upon it. When the drawing is finished, pin it down at the corners on a board, let it be held in an inclined position, and pour some hot water over it; the gum immediately dissolves, leaving the parts which were covered by it perfectly white. Broad spaces in light, upon which are to be drawn minute and sharply-cut details, may be preserved in this

difficult. He will be better able to decide for himself than we can for him as to which of those parts may require more frequent repetition; and it is almost needless to say, that by frequent repetition only can he hope to succeed. There is a very easy and legitimate way of preserving in pencil drawings the sharp touches of light which are seen upon polished surfaces, streaks in water, blades of grass, the bright parts of clouds, small objects of a naturally light colour on a dark background, or any effect where brilliancy is requisite, and where a sharp, clear, and distinct outline of the form must be preserved. It is this:After the outline of the object, or part to be preserved, has been made, dip a fine hair-pencil into tolerably strong gum-water, and

way, and, after the gum is washed off, the details may be made out upon them. This leads to the use of gum-water in another way, and that is, as a means of fixing the drawing. If a drawing is worth anything, it surely is worth setting, that is, fixing the lead or chalk with which it is drawn, so that, under moderate treatment, it cannot injure by rubbing. For highly-finished drawings, or where the chalk or pencil has been very liberally applied, it will be better to proceed in this way-Nearly fill a shallow dish or tray, somewhat larger than the drawing, with a weak solution of gum-water, or which may sometimes be more convenient-a mixture of milk and water, half of each; pass the drawing carefully through the mixture (face uppermost)

If

backwards and forwards; then fix it up on the wall by a corner to drip and dry; or the drawing may be pinned down to a board, held on an incline over a dish, and the milk and water poured over it with a spoon, beginning at the top; it is necessary to see that all parts of the drawing have been passed over. the drawings are merely outlines, or have very little shading upon them, then the fixing medium may be passed over the whole paper with a broad, flat camel-hair brush. With careful treatment, this method of preserving drawings will be found to bo quite satisfactory.

LESSONS IN FRENCH.-XXIX.

SECTION LII.-THE IMPERFECT TENSE [§ 119].

1. THE imperfect, or simultaneous past tense, may be called the descriptive tense of the French. The action which it represents, or the situation which it describes, is imperfect of itself. This tense leaves the beginning, duration, and end of an action undetermined. It may often be rendered in English by the auxiliary was, etc., and the participle present of the verb [§ 119, § 120].

1. De qui parliez-vous ce matin quand je suis venu vous, trouver? 2. Ma cousine parlait de son frère et je parlais du mien. 3. N'aimiez-vous pas mieux le boeuf que le mouton autrefois ? 4. J'aimais le bœuf, mais je n'ai jamais aimé le mouton. 5. Ne vendiez-vous pas beaucoup de livres lorsque vous demeuriez à Paris? 6. J'en vendais beaucoup, parceque j'étais libraire. 7. Le libraire a-t-il vendu beaucoup de crayons ce matin? 8. Il a vendu beaucoup de crayons aujourd'hui. 9. Vendiez-vous beaucoup de parchemin lorsque vous étiez libraire ? 10. Je n'en vendais presque pas. 11. Votre frère portait-il un habit vert lorsqu'il demeurait à Londres? 12. Il portait un habit brun et des pantoufles noires. 13. Que cherchiez-vous ? 14. Je cherchais mon livre. 15. Depuis quand l'aviez-vous perdu? 16. Je l'avais perdu depuis hier. 17.

came in.

Je passais hier quand vous m'ap- I was passing yesterday when you pelâtes,

called me.

perdu de nouveau. 19. Ce boulanger vous fournissait-il de bon pain? 20. Il nous en fournissait d'excellent. 21. Punis siez-vous souvent vos écoliers? 22. Je les punissais quand ils le méritaient. 23. Où étiez-vous ce matin quand je vous cherchais? 24. J'étais dans ma chambre. 25. Je finissais mon thème.

EXERCISE 100.

1. Who was at your house this morning? 2. My friend G. was there, and was looking for you. 3. Did you speak to my father yesterday? 4. I was speaking to him when they brought me your letter. 5. Did your father (use to) wear a white hat 6. He used to wear a black hat, when he lived in London? and my brother wore a black coat. 7. Were you singing when my father came ? 8. No, Sir, I was finishing my exercise. 9. Had you lost your pencil this morning? 10. I had lost it, and was looking for it when you spoke to me. 11. You used to like reading (la lecture); did your sister (use to) like it also? 12. She liked it also. 13. What song were you singing this morning? 14. I was singing an Italian song. 15. Have you been afraid to speak to me? 16. I have never been afraid to speak 17. Have you brought my book? 18. I have not

to you. brought it.

SECTION LIII.—THE IMPERFECT TENSE (continued). regular or irregular, ends in ais, ais, ait, ions, iez, aient. 1. The imperfect of the indicative of every French verb,

2. No verb of the first conjugation, er, is irregular in this

S. Je

I

Tu

1.

chant -ais was singing parl -ais

Thou wast speaking donn -ait was giving

Но

fin -issais rec -evais rend -ais. was finishing was receiving was rendering. chér issais aperc evais vend -ais. wast cherishing wast perceiving wast selling. fourn -issait perc -evait tend -ait. was furnishing was gathering was tending. -ions pun -issions conc -evions entend -ions. We were seeking were punishing were conceiving were hearing. Vous port -iez sais -issiez d -eviez perd -iez. You were carrying were seizing were owing were losing. Ils aim -aient un -issaient déc -evaient mord -aient. They were loving were uniting were deceiving were biting.

3. The only irregularity found in the irregular verbs of the second conjugation, ir, is that, to form the imperfect, the stem of these verbs takes ais, etc., instead of issois; as, ven-ir, je ven-ais; cour-ir, je cour-ais; cueill-ir, je cueill-ais. Exception: Fuir, to flee-je fuyais.

4. The irregular verbs of the third conjugation, oir, change that termination (oir) into ais, etc., like the irregular verbs of the same; as, sav-oir, je sav-ais; av-oir, j'av-ais. Exceptions: se-oir, to become; voir, to see; and their compounds, and déchoir [see § 63].

5. The changes which the stem of the irregular verbs of the fourth conjugation undergoes, in this tense, are too various to admit of a complete classification. We, however, offer the following:

pounds.

Il en avait grand besoin.

Quelle voiture conduisiez-vous ?

Pour qui me preniez-vous?

He had great need of it.

What carriage were you driving?

For whom were you taking me?

Je venais vous trouver quand je I was coming to you when I met you. vous rencontrai.

A qui écriviez-vous ce matin ?

J'écrivais à ma sœur et à mon frère.

Autrement, otherwise.
Cass-er, 1, to break.

Chasse, f., hunting.
Dire, 4, ir., to say.
Montre, f., watch.
Moins (au), at least.
Mort, -e, dead.
Offens-er, to offend.

To whom were you writing this morning?

brother.

sommeil, mais j'a faim. 3. Avez-vous du poivre ou du sel? 4. Je n'ai ni poivre ni sel, j'ai du fromage. 5. Votre frère a-t-il soif ou faim ? 6. Mon frère n'a ni soif ni faim. 7. Votre sœur a-t-elle raison ou tort ? 9. Le bon menuisier a-t-il peur ? 8. Elle n'a pas tort, elle a raison. 10. Il n'a pas peur, mais honte. 11. Avez-vous du lait ou du fromage? 12. Je n'ai ni lait ni fromage, j'ai du beurre. 13. Avez-vous le beau drap ou le bon thé ? 14. Je n'ai ni le beau drap ni le bon thé. 15. Avez-vous quelque chose, mon bon ami? 16. Je n'ai rien, mon bon Monsieur. 17. N'avez-vous pas de pain? 18. Oui, Madame, j'ai de bon pain, de bon beurre, et de bon fromage. 19. Le charpentier a-t-il scmmeil ? 20. Le charpentier n'a pas sommeil, mais le ferblantier a faim. 21. Avez-vous le marteau de bois du ferblantier? 22. Je n'ai pas son marteau de bois. 23. Quel marteau avez-vous ? 24. J'ai le marteau d'acier. 25. Avez-vous un bon habit de drap? 26. Non, Monsieur, mais j'ai une robe de soie. 27. Le tailleur a-t-il le bon bouton d'or ? 28. Oui, Monsieur, il a le bon bouton d'or.

EXERCISE 11 (Vol. I., page 43).

VOCABULARY. Oubli-er, 1, to forget. Pêche, f., fishing. Peind-re, 4, ir., to paint. Reven-ir, 2, ir., to return. Sav-oir, 3, ir., to know. Se tromp-er, 1, to be mistaken.

EXERCISE 101.

Teind-re, 4, ir., to dje.
Teinturier, m., dyer.
Toile, f., linen cloth.
Rencontr-er, 1, to meet,
Val-oir, 3, ir., to be worth.
Ven-ir, 2, ir., to come, to
have just.
Vite, quickly.

1. Pourquoi n'écriviez-vous pas plus vite ce matin ? 2. Parceque j'avais peur de me tromper. 3. Ne craigniez-vous pas d'offenser cette dame? 4. Je craignais de l'offenser, mais je ne pouvais faire autrement. 5. Que peigniez-vous ce matin? 6. Je peignais un tableau d'histoire. 7. Votre teinturier que teignait-il ? 8. Il teignait du drap, de la soie et de la toile. 9. De quelle couleur les teignait-il? 10. Il teignait le drap en noir, et la soie et la toile en vert. 11. Conduisiez-vous le jeune Polonais à l'école lorsque je vous ai rencontré ? 12. Je conduisais mon fils aîné à l'église. 13. Que lisiez-vous ? 14. Je lisais des livres que je venais d'acheter. 15. Ne saviez-vous pas que ce monsieur est mort ? 16. Je l'avais oublié. 17. Combien la montre que vous avez cassée valait-elle ? 18. Elle valait au moins deux cents francs. 19. Ne valait-il pas mieux rester ici que d'aller à la chasse? 20. Il valait beaucoup mieux aller à l'école. 21. Votre ami que vous disait-il ? 22. Il me disait que son frère est revenu d'Espagne. 23. N'alliez-vous pas à la chasse tous les jours lorsque vous demeuriez à la campagne ? 24. J'allais souvent à la pêche. 25. Mon frère allait tous les jours à l'école quand il était ici.

EXERCISE 102.

1. Were you afraid this morning when you came to our house? 2. I was afraid. 3. Of what were you afraid? 4. I was afraid of the horse. 5. Was not your friend afraid of falling (de tomber)? [See Sect. XX. 2, 4.] 6. He was not afraid of falling, but he was afraid of making a mistake (de se tromper). [See 2, in exercise above.] 7. Were you taking your son to school? 8. I was conducting him to school. 9. What colour was the dyer dyeing the silk? 10. He was dyeing some red and some green. 11. Was he dyeing his cloth black or green? 12. He was neither dyeing it black nor green, he was dyeing it pink (rose). 13. What was the gentleman reading? 14. He was reading a letter which he had just received. 15. Were you cold when you came here ? 16. I was cold, hungry, and thirsty. 17. Were you not ashamed of your conduct (conduite) ? 18. I was ashamed of it. 19. Whither were you going when I met you? 20. I was going to your house. 21. Were you driving your 22. I was driving my own (la mienne). brother's carriage? 23. Were you writing to me or to my father? 24. I was writing to your friend's cousin.

KEY TO EXERCISES IN LESSONS IN FRENCH. EXERCISE 10 (Vol. I., page 43).

1. Avez-vous le porte-crayon d'argent ? 2. Non, Monsieur, je ne l'ai pas. 3. Avez-vous l'assiette de mon frère ? 4. Oui, Madame, je l'ai. 5. Le boucher a-t-il le bon biscuit ? 6. Il ne l'a pas; il a le bon bœuf, le bon mouton, et le bon veau. 7. Avez-vous mon couteau et ma fourchette ? 8. Je n'ai ni votre couteau ni votre fourchette. 9. Qui 11. Avez-vous le mien aussi ? a le biscuit du bon matelot ? 10. Le boulanger l'a, et j'ai le mien. 12. Je n'ai ni le vôtre ni le sien. 13. Avezvous faim? 14. Je n'ai pas faim, j'ai soif et j'ai sommeil. 15. N'avezvous pas honte ? 16. Non, Monsieur, je n'ai pas horte, mais j'ai froid. 17. Votre parent a-t-il raison ou tort? 18. Mon parent a raison, Monsieur. 19. A-t-il mon plat de porcelaine ou mon couteau d'argent ? 20. Il n'a ni votre plat de porcelaine ni votre couteau d'argent; il a votre assiette de porcelaine. 21. Quelqu'un a-t-il mon porte-crayon d'argent ? 22. Personne ne l'a, mais votre frère a votre habit de drap. 23. Avez-vous le mien ou le sien? 24. J'ai le vôtre.

EXERCISE 13 (Vol. I., page 59).

1. Has your brother his silver inkstand? 2. He has it no longer, he has a lead inkstand. 3. Have we the stranger's letter? 4. Yes, Sir, we have the stranger's. 5. Your sister has not her slate, but she has her satin bonnet. 6. Has the joiner your wood or his ? 7. He has neither mine nor his, he has the gardener's. 8. Have you my good 9. I have your silk umbrella and your satin parasol. silk umbrella? 10. Have you my bottle? 11. I have not your bottle, I have your

sister's trunk.

this salt-cellar, he has that.

12. Has the servant this salt-cellar ? 13. He has not 14. Have you the good or the bad chicken ? 15. I have neither this nor that. 16. Which chicken have you? 17. I have the cook's. 18. Has the baker poultry? 19. The baker has no poultry, he has milk. 20. Have you your cheese or any one hungry? 23. No one is hungry. 24. Is anything the matter with you? 25. No, Sir, nothing is the matter with me. 26. Have you my joiner's mahogany sofa? 27. No, Sir, I have it not. his pretty looking-glass and his good pencil.

mine ? 21. I have neither yours nor mine, I have the sailor's. 22. Is

EXERCISE 14 (Vol. I., page 59).

28. I have

parapluie de cette dame. 3. Avez-vous ce parasol-ci ou celui-là? 4. 1. Votre frère a-t-il le parapluie de cette dame? 2. Mon frère a le

Je n'ai ni celui-ci ni celui-là. 5. Avez-vous la montre d'or de l'étranger ? 6. Non, Monsieur, j'ai celle du boulanger. 7. Qui a mon ardoise? 8.

J'ai votre ardoise et celle de votre frère. 9. Le cuisinier a-t-il une

18. 20.

salière d'argent? 10. Le cuisinier a une salière d'argent, et un plat d'argent. 11. Le cuisinier a-t-il cette volaille-ci ou celle-là ? 12. II n'a ni celle-ci ni celle-là. 13. A-t-il ce pain-ci ou celui-là ? 14. Il n'a 15. Avez-vous ni celui-ci ni celui-là, il a le bon pain du boulanger. mon parasol de coton? 16. Je n'ai pas votre parasol de coton, j'ai votre parasol de soie. Le jardinier a une malle de cuir. 17. Le jardinier a-t-il une malle de cuir ? Personne n'a votre fromage, mais quelqu'un a celui de votre frère. 19. Qui a mon bon fromage ? 21. Avez-vous le mien ou le sien ? 22. Je n'ai ni le vôtre ni le sien, j'ai celui de l'étranger. 23. Le cuisinier a-t-il cette bouteille-ci ou ce balai-là P 24. Il a cette bouteille-ci. 25. Avez-vous un encrier de plomb ? 26. Non, Monsieur, j'ai un encrier de porcelaine. 27. L'étranger a-t-il de la volaille ? 28. L'étranger n'a pas de volaille, mais

76

Quelqu'un a-t-il honte ? 31. Non, Monsieur, personne n'a honte. 32. 33. Mon frère a raison, et le vôtre Votre frère a-t-il raison ou tort? a tort. 34. Votre sœur n'a ni son chapeau de satin, ni son chapeau de 36. Il ne l'a velours. 35. Le boulanger a-t-il la commode d'acajou ? pas, il a le sofa d'acajou. 37. Le ferblantier a-t-il mon assiette? 38. Il n'a pas votre assiette, il a la mienne.

EXERCISE 15 (Vol. I., page 59).

2. We have the black1. Have you the carpenter's hammers? 3. Have the blacksmiths two wooden hammers? smith's hammers. 5. Have the generals the silk hats 4. They have two iron hammers. of the child? 6. They have the child's jewels and playthings. 7. Have the children the birds of your wood ? 8. They have not the birds of my wood, but they have the horses of my general. 9. Has the black10. The blacksmith has two pairs smith a pair of woollen stockings ? of woollen stockings. 11. Sir, are you not cold? 12. No, Sir, I am 13. Have you coffee or chocolate ? 14. I have neither coffee nor chocolate. 15. Have you not the cabbages of my large garden? 17. What is the 16. I have the vegetables of your small garden. matter with your son? 18. My son has nothing. 19. Have you two pieces of bread ? 20. The miller has a piece of bread and two barrels of flour. 21. Has the grocer coffee, tea, chocolate, and pepper? 22. He has tea and coffee, and your merchant's chocolate and pepper. 23. Who has money? 24. I have no money, but I have paper. 25. Have you good paper? 26. I have bad paper.

warm.

through the gramme, which is the weight of 1 cubic centimètre of pure water, taken at the maximum density of water, a temperature of 4° Centigrade, and weighed at Paris.

THERMOMETRY.

Heat is "that which produces in us the sensation of warmth." Temperature is-" that energy with which one body seeks to impart its heat to another."

Thus the temperature of a body is no indication of the real quantity of heat in the body. Equal weights of mercury and water may have the same temperature, and yet the water will contain really thirty times more heat or caloric than the metal. Thermometers are measurers of "temperature," not of heat. High temperatures are measured by pyrometers; extremely low temperatures by alcohol thermometers; while mercurial thermometers are used for the intermediate ordinary temperatures. These instruments depend for their action upon the fact that all bodies, with the rise and fall of their In pyrometers temperatures, expand and contract. (Fig. 1), a small bar of platinum, 8, which can only be melted by the intense heat of the flame of the oxyhydrogen blowpipe, is placed in a hole, b b, drilled in a piece of graphite, o, a form of carbon which is capable of supporting any heat. The bar projects above the hole, and is bound to the graphite-a piece of which has been sliced away to expose the The position of the hole-by a platinum strap, a. top of the bar is carefully noted. It is now introduced into the furnace whose temperature is required. The bar expands, and when it is removed, the strap prevents it from resuming its former position. Thus the expansion of the platinum is found, and from experiment we have learnt that for every 100° Cent. platinum expands of its length, and therefore we Fig. 1. can calculate the heat of the furnace.

Mercury is chiefly used for thermometers for five reasons:1. It is easily got pure, for mercury can be distilled like water.

2. It does not stick to the glass.

3. It has a long range, freezing at at 350° Cent.

40° Cent., and boiling

4. It expands uniformly-that is, it increases as much in bulk if heated from 50° to 60°, as it will from 150° to 160°.

Fig. 2.

B

"

5. Having a low "capacity for heat,' its temperature soon changes; it is, therefore, very sensitive.

TO MAKE A MERCURIAL THER-
MOMETER.

1. Take a glass tube with a capillary bore (fine, "like a hair"), as represented at a in Fig. 2; make about half an inch of mercury run down it, and measure it at different points in its descent. If it retain its length, the bore is uniform.

2. Blow the bulb, B, not with the mouth, lest moisture be introduced, but by connecting the tube, by an india-rubber pipe, with a bag of the same material, and then pressing the bag while the end of the tube is held in a gas flame, as hereafter to be described.

3. Fasten a funnel of paper, C, to the top of the tube, and put into it some purified mercury; now heat the bulb, and the air expanding will bubble through it. Upon removing the lamp, the air will contract, and the mercury will be forced into the bulb. Repeating this process a few times, the bulb and tube will be filled. The lamp flame is again applied to the bulb, and while the mercury is oozing out, the tube is hermetically sealed, by bringing a blowpipe flame to play upon its open end.

4. Thermometers are graduated according to three scales