stances, inadvertently perhaps, upon the very track which, as history shows, guided to the downfall of bygone republics, instead of improving what was begun so nobly half a century ago. Thus we think it not superfluous to lead the attention of our readers to this most important subject.

2. Self-government is either personal or social.

3. Men acquire personal self-government by Education, Instruction, and Industry, in the most comprehensive sense of these words. By means of education, instruction and industry, and only with their help, we become intelligent, virtuous, useful and independent men, and able to govern ourselves for our benefit and that of others. The end of all education, instruction and industry, must be goodness, intelligence and independence, from which originates personal self-government.* It is true that virtue lies at the foundation of personal goodness; still the notion of virtue implies not exactly that energy of character which chiefly makes a self-governing man. Louis XVI., king of France, is said to have been a virtuous man, but most certainly he was not a self-governing man; otherwise he would have braved the storm of the French Revolution.

Thus, it is evident, that personal self-government is more than virtue. The notion we gave of self-government shows, that a self-governing man not only is a perfect man, but also a perfect member of human society, who does not permit himself to be guided by others, as they please, either by the sword or by any other force, because he is able, and always ready to guide himself personally alone, and, of course, will respect the same quality in others. Hence it follows, that personal self-government will have a thorough peaceable tendency. In proportion as personal or individual government becomes universal, in the same proportion social government will be less necessary.

4. Social self-government originates in families. Our race consists of families, and is perpetuated by them. They are the little natural states, where the labor of education and instruction is chiefly done, both of which lead to industry. Men who like the wild Indians are without education and instruction are also destitute of industry. The establishing of families, the providing of the manifold requisites for their support, the multifarious occupations hence originating, produce conflicts, which make forms and rules and

* Also called Self-control, Self-rule, Self-dominion.

laws necessary, the knowledge and observance of which are indispensable for self-government. All do not know them, and if they do, are not always inclined to obey them, (in consequence of want of personal self-government,) hence originates that kind of business, which generally is called public business, or civil government, state business, &c.

Where personal self-government in a great measure is wanting, as in Mexico or South America, and in most European countries, this public business (state business,) is rather in a deplorable state, and conducted mostly according to one or the other principles of physical force, which necessarily leads to subjection. It is in vain to expect that the public business will ever be done in a fair way among men who do not understand how to govern themselves, or, in other words, to take good care of themselves.

5. The (physical and moral) education of our young is the first business we have to examine in regard to the principle of self-government. It is one of the most important duties men have to accomplish, and requires chiefly the unwavering care and unceasing attention of woman, whereas they take no active part in public affairs. It is true that in America, education is left more nearly free than any where else. The interference of ecclesiastical institutions, perhaps only the Catholic excepted, is not of great consequence. But there are nevertheless several instances, where the laws and activity of public officers are not in strict conformity with self-government in regard to the liberty of education. We mention first the Orphan Asylums. Orphans ought not to be crowded into houses together, but educated in families. Further, our states begin to interfere, more and more, with the liberty of education, in regard to elementary schools. It is the right and duty of parents (guardians,) to take care of the schooling of their offspring, and not the business of the state.

6. Instruction, the other great lever of self-government, may be either elementary, religious (churches,) moral, scientific, mechanic, or otherwise, and is also mostly depending on parents (guardians.) When they are not able to accomplish it alone they may engage teachers or masters to do it. True, self-governing men never will neglect this duty. The interference of states in the business of education and instruction leads to centralization,

to the adoption of narrow systems, to education for political purposes, to the increasing of state business and expenses, to political patronage, and to the alienation of the popular mind from the subject.

This liberty of instruction is indispensable for the practical development of our faculties. The comparatively universal diffusion of knowledge among all classes in the United States of America, is a product of this liberty. It awakes that eager spirit for information which seems to die away where governments take the lead; or will be perverted or poisoned by politics, as is already the case in some of our states. The freemen in towns are at full liberty to establish town schools for all; they are at liberty to raise the expenses by direct taxation; this is their business. But the state herself has nothing to do with it. It is the same with scientific institutes. The avenues to science are at present so easy that every person may get all kinds of information if he only will make use of the means which surround him. State interference will lead to state religion, state medicine, state jurisprudence, state military schools, &c., which are all more apt to hinder, than to promote the natural progress of science. It is a part of the liberty of industry, to be a teacher and a master; both, if qualified, will find pupils. We do not take side with barbarism, but we know the tendencies of such state institutions too well not to be prepared to speak of them otherwise than with the highest distrust in regard to the liberty of instruction, and its bearing on self-government. We shall find hereafter opportunity to state, that acts of incorporation are against liberty of industry; we therefore mention only in this connexion, that true science gains nothing by the incorporation of such institutions. Arts and sciences flourish most where left alone. We add, in the appendix, a plan of a constitution for a State, according to the principle of self-government. In section 2, it is said that no person shall have the right of suffrage who is not sufficiently able to read, write and speak the language in public use. Thus we may provide by a law for instruction. All other arrangements are better left to the people alone. If we allow governments to do more, it will be done at the expense of the liberty of instruction and wise economy, a principal object in our times. The same may be said of churches and church associations; as valuable as they are for the purpose of

instruction in practical religion, still they will operate as well, and perhaps better, without corporate rights as with them. Indeed it is for the purpose of securing these rights that church establishments are aiming at public influence, jurisdiction and political power. And has not governmental interference, at all times, hindered the quiet useful working of religious institutions? What has corrupted true Christianity more than its connexion with states? Meetinghouses may be built, and teachers of religion paid, as well without charters, and without the rights of a body politic, as with them. Self-governing freemen never ought to allow such things. This business belongs to the very intimate private affairs of mankind. If an organized church, as the Catholic or any other, interferes with the liberty of instruction, it is as bad as if done by the states themselves. It is also a mistake to think that liberty may be taught in schools. Liberty is freedom from subjection or oppression of all kinds, and can as little be imparted by instruction as nature herself. Men may be artificially trained for subjects of monarchs, but not for freemen, Organized churches will teach their creeds and formulas, but a very little of that religion which may be found outside of these churches. Why support them by laws? If governments have the care of instruction they always will make use of this power for their political interests, plans and fancy passions. Thus we may observe, that for state institutions, generally called military academies (West Point,) i. e., schools where young men are instructed in the art and science of killing men, cannonading houses and towns, destroying crops, erecting manslaughter houses called batteries or fortresses, &c., more state money is spent than is appropriated for any other kind of academical instruction, because such military institutes are better adapted than the latter to promote the ordinary designs of government as they usually are. And for the

same reason we find, that an enormous amount of public money is annually laid out for making cannons, and other wholesale murder instruments, and much more than for instruments to save limbs and prolong life. We do not wish to be understood that we expect from any government, funds for the promotion of peace, health, or humanity; by no means, freemen will take care of that themselves; but we only wish to state, that governments, if not watched very closely, are all apt to apply state funds to purposes A*

which are diametrically opposed to the principle of selfgovernment, which is, as we have seen, a product of reason and nature, and not of physical force and barbarism. Selfgovernment leads to peace, and not to war. It opens indeed, a wide field of warfare, but only for that of industry, free competition, and self exertion. Therefore, we as self-governing freemen, ought not to allow such interference with the liberty of instruction to our governments.

7. By Industry, the third great source of self-government, we acquire the means of our existence and that of our families, as farmers, traders, merchants, bankers, brokers, printers, mechanics, writers, artists, scientific men, &c. It is honest, unremitting industry, (of which alone we speak here,) which warrants success, and makes an independent man in a pecuniary regard. For a full development of self-government, the greatest liberty of industry is indispensable. With this liberty our governments, in states and union, interfere more than with instruction and education. But we shall pursue this subject, together with the examination of the different branches of state and Congress business.

8. We have mentioned before (section 4,) that social life leads unavoidably to conflicts, which are easily set right among self-governing freemen. But we are not yet all such men. The corrupting influence of governments, as they commonly are, has among other more obvious causes, tended to render the number of those unable to govern themselves so large as to endanger that condition of society, at which self-government aims. Hence the origin and present necessity of laws, law-makers, judges, sheriffs, jails, prisons, and other expedients to check the ungovernable, or restrain the doings of bad men, who are unable to rule or govern themselves, and who therefore must be ruled or governed by others. Further, there are certain kinds of social business which cause and require cooperation. For the making of the laws concerning these bad men, and the business requiring co-operation, society has been divided into states, and these subdivided into counties and towns, and established representative bodies and officers who enact these laws, execute them, and act as agents of these districts. We commonly say the state, country, or land is divided into counties and towns, because society cannot be understood without the land over which it is spread; but, properly speaking, these