but easy of acquirement to all who were studying in the monastery schools. But he entrusted his precious treasures to the Latin language only, and thus placed them beyond the reach of those who most needed help. Toward the close of his life he began the work of translating the Gospels into English, and died a few moments after completing the Gospel of St. John. His most extensive work was the "Ecclesiastical History of England."

16. The Good King Alfred.—In the early part of his reign, King Alfred met with reverses that compelled him to wander for a time in disguise among his lowliest subjects. This was not a lost experience; for it taught him the honest worth and the greatest need of his people.

After many severe struggles he succeeded in subduing his enemies, and securing union and peace. He then set to work to benefit his subjects by giving them the means of mental and moral culture. No one in his realm worked more diligently than he. He translated and wrote almost constantly, and got others to help him. So far as possible, he furnished text-books in language so simple and so familiar that all who could read could understand, and so attractive that those who could not read would be induced to learn the art. He translated many valuable works, and among them were the "Ecclesiastical History of England" and other writings by Bede; the "Consolations of Philosophy," by Boethius; and the best work then extant on ancient history. instituted the great "Saxon Chronicle," by which the history of the country, so far as it could be obtained,

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was recorded down to his day and continued through his lifetime. From the impulse which he gave this important work, it was carried on by the monks in the monasteries for generations after his death. He also prepared accounts of voyages and travels in other lands. Thus he spent his life in educating his people and in trying to build up a healthy, happy kingdom.

He gave

Alfred did more than simply to translate. explanations of difficult or obscure passages, and made many important additions to the text. His writings are considered the purest English of his time. They were gladly received by the people, those who could not read gathering in companies to hear from the lips of those who could.

17. Other Old-English Writings.-The period was not without its thinkers and writers, but there was not much written that was characterized by sufficient genius to keep it from oblivion. It must be remembered, too, that the art of printing was then unknown, and that books had to be produced, one by one, through the slow process of handwriting.

Many works, especially those in verse, were lost for centuries, and remain to us now only in fragments, or in some dingy and worn old manuscript that has been rescued from its obscure hiding-place in some ancient monastery.

18. Object of this Sketch. Thus we have traced briefly and imperfectly, the beginnings of English literature, not because the writings of that period are profitable for present reading, but because a knowledge of

these first fruits, and of the causes and conditions that produced them, will aid us in the study of more modern productions.

II. THE TRANSITION PERIOD.

19. Sudden Change. The effect of the Norman Conquest upon the English language and literature was immediate and far-reaching. The English tongue was no longer heard in polite circles nor used in the writing of books. Native genius no longer expressed itself in the mother tongue, but gave its contributions to enrich the literature of other nations. For a time it seemed as if the inspirations of the poet, the wisdom of the philosopher, or the chronicles of the historian would never again come to the people in the words that had become so dear to them by centuries of familiar use.

20. Immediate Causes. Although the early fathers of the people who invaded England under William were Teutons, like those of the people whom they sought to subdue, they had been entirely transformed and in many ways much improved by their intercourse with the French. The bold Norse adventurers married French maidens, and the French mothers used and taught their children to use the only language the mothers knew,- that spoken by the French people. Thus the work of assimilation went on from generation to generation till a new people was formed, having the strength of the North combined with the language and polish of the South.

It is not to be wondered at that to such a people the plain manners of their Northern neighbors should

seem coarse and repulsive, or that the solid worth hidden beneath so rude an exterior should be slow in finding the appreciation which it deserved. Thus the Normans had a strong aversion to the English, and the English as heartily despised and hated their conquerors. From this cause, the two peoples who were destined to form so strong a union were held apart for more than a century.

The kings who now sat on the throne of England were of foreign birth. They did not love the English (whom they called Saxons), but sought to enslave rather than to improve the people among whom they had come to dwell. Saxon thanes were driven from their possessions, to give place to Norman nobles, who ruled as feudal lords, and exercised the despotism of petty kings. The common people were many of them reduced to a vassalage as odious as it was unjust. king and his nobles wanted hunting-grounds; so they drove the inhabitants from vast tracts of country, depriving the people of their homes in order to make a playground for themselves.

The

But in nothing was more complete monopoly attempted than in language and literature. How well the

attempt succeeded, has already been noticed. No means were neglected that could tend to make the new language universal. The monasteries were still the seats of learning; and these centers of education were ruled by French-speaking abbots appointed by the king. French-speaking nobles ruled in feudal castles all over the land, exercising a wide influence. All the ecclesiastics were men whom the king could trust to carry out his wishes. Even the laws were in French, and all legal proceedings had to be carried on in that language.

The writers of the age deserted the language they had learned at their mother's knee. Latin was the language of learning throughout Europe; so every one who wanted to gain a wide popularity wrote in Latin. Thus did both fashion and power conspire against stout old English.

But the universal language of a people cannot be changed by arbitrary power nor by fashionable neglect, especially a language that has been rooted in their hearts by a thousand years of loving association. The common people were made of tough fiber; they were the descendants of a stern ancestry. Although compelled to submit to outward rule, their inward spirit of independence could not be subdued. Their thoughts, their speech, their love of home and country, their faith in God and themselves, these were treasures of which no tyrant's hand could despoil them. It was only when common interests and common sympathies united the hearts of these two peoples that there came a peaceable blending of their languages.

21. Confusion of Speech among the Common People. Before the Norman Conquest, the English language had become firmly established among the scholarly men who wrote in it. Although the spelling of its words was variant, its grammatical forms were well fixed and carefully adhered to. Then, as now, the uneducated classes were careless in their speech, and in different sections of the country peculiar dialects prevailed. But as the effect of the Norman tongue began to be felt, established usages were broken up, and some who still wished to write in their native language uttered loud