only such specific phases of life-that is, subject matter-as experience and investigation seem to justify. In general, nothing has been admitted merely because it is thought valuable by society at large; it must also prove valuable to the pupil at the time he deals with it, and valuable for the same reason that others have found it valuable. In other words, the committee has avoided as far as possible the fallacy of postponed returns, believing that if the present is properly improved the future will take care of itself.

A word of explanation as to the treatment of the subjects of grammar, rhetoric, literary form, and literary history seems necessary. Grammar and rhetoric are regarded in this report as the theoretical side of correct and effective expression in speech and writing. Both should find their meaning throughout the course in terms of the actual compositional activities of the pupils. This implies that theoretical principles shall be formulated in large measure by the pupils themselves and that the value of them shall appear in connection with the projects upon which the pupils are engaged. In other words, exercises are not to be devised for the sake of exemplifying principles, but principles are to be seized upon because they enable greater success in communication. Needless to say, such a view narrows immensely the range of grammatical and rhetorical topics which it seems worth while to include in the course. The treatise, moreover, becomes what it should always be, a work of reference, its place being supplied by "laboratory " guides and note books.

Regarding literary forms and literary history much the same things may be said. Critical appreciation of technique in literary composition is possible to only a small degree in the high school, even in the upper years. The teacher's mastery of it should enable him to guide the study and direct the observation of the pupils so as to establish in them fruitful habits of reading. Generalizations of a critical nature should be few and modest.

Literary history, except as an elective, should be incidental and informal in the high school and should follow rather than precede the reading of the literature itself. Learned flourishing of names, dates, and facts of historical "background" is a sorry substitute for intelligent and sympathetic direction of the observation and imagination of pupils in the interpretation and enjoyment of the artistic presentation of various phases of life. Incidental information germane to the matter under consideration, blackboard outlines and summaries, individual reports, reference reading with a definite purpose these should constitute the sum of literary history for the majority of high-school pupils. Properly used, these means will put all in the possession of the main names, titles, and connections-the multiplication table of literary history, a basis for further reading and study.

The details of the course have been arranged under seven main heads, as follows: Composition in the junior high school; literature in the junior high school; composition in the senior high school; literature in the senior high school; oral expression; business English; general reading. Oral expression and general reading overlap the others and are not intended as distinct and separate lines of activity. They are given separate treatment merely to show their continuity and to emphasize their importance. Each of the seven formulations, as well as that on the library which follows, is the work of a special subcommittee.1

1 The names of the members of each subcommittee are given above. See p. 25.

VI. REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON COMPOSITION IN THE SEVENTH, EIGHTH, AND NINTH GRADES.

I. POINT OF VIEW.

The point of view of the committee on composition in the seventh, eighth, and ninth grades may be stated as follows:

1. Training in composition is of equal importance with the study of literature and should have an equal allowance of time. Composition work should find place in every year of the school course.

2. Subjects for compositions should be drawn chiefly from the pupil's life and experience. To base theme work mainly upon the literature studied leads pupils to think of composition as a purely academic exercise, bearing little relation to life.

3. Oral work should be conducted in intimate relation with written. work, and ordinarily the best results will follow when both are taught by the same teacher.

4. Theory and practice should go hand in hand. The principles of grammar and rhetoric should be taught at the time and to the extent that they are aids to expression.

5. If examinations are given, they should be so framed as to be a test of power rather than of mere memory.

II. THE CHIEF PROBLEMS.

The general aims of oral and written composition have been set forth above and need not be repeated. In the seventh, eighth, and ninth grades appears the first opportunity for systematizing such knowledge of the principles of expression as will help the pupil consciously to increase his ability. While the practical value of grammar and rhetoric is much less than was formerly supposed, it does not follow that they should be entirely ignored. The essential parts should be selected upon the basis of tested experience and should be taught in connection with expression in situations as real as may be.

The topics in grammar and rhetoric suggested for the several grades have been chosen in the light of experience and investigation and not because of mere custom or the desire for logical completeness. The study of these topics will be most fruitful if they are regarded as standing for specific habits to be formed; for results to be tested ultimately as practice rather than as theory. It is not supposed that precisely these topics in precisely this order will be handled everywhere, nor that the emphasis upon each of them will

be everywhere the same. Definite progress in the several abilities represented should, however, be planned for in every school.

Chief among the abilities to be cultivated may be enumerated the following:

1. Accuracy of observation and vividness of imagination.

2. Clear and logical thinking.

3. A sense for order and completeness.

4. Adaptation of subject matter to a particular audience. 5. The sentence sense.

6. The accurate use of an adequate vocabulary.

7. Observance of standard usage in matters of external form. The chief problem in elementary composition is to direct pupils in the choice of subjects of real value and interest and the defining toward each of a particular point of view. This is peculiarly difficult because of the wide range of individual differences in the pupils of the junior high school. For this reason suggestions as to possible themes have been made somewhat liberally. Teachers should take ample time in assigning topics and in stimulating each pupil to think his topic over carefully and perhaps make notes upon it.

The reaction against English grammar arose from the knowledge that the formal work in the subject that was being done was of small practical value. A further influence resulted from investigations tending to show that grammar provides little mental discipline of a general character. The movement in favor of simplifying the school course and concentrating on essentials did the rest. There is need at the present time of careful discrimination, lest the pendulum be allowed to swing too far.

A sane attitude toward the teaching of grammar would seem to be to find out what parts and aspects of the subject have actual value to children in enabling them to improve their speaking, writing, and reading, to teach these parts according to modern scientific methods, and to ignore any and all portions of the conventional school grammar that fall outside these categories. In general, the grammar worth teaching is the grammar of use-function in the sentenceand the grammar to be passed over is the grammar of classificationpigeonholing by definition. The distinction is similar to the contrast of modern biology with the earlier science of families, species, etc. Language, it is well known, is learned mainly by imitation, largely unconscious, and children constantly use in their speech hundreds of expressions, many of them highly idiomatic, which only the linguistic scholar, familiar with the history of the language, can explain. Children should be set to examining only those grammatical forms and constructions whose use they can plainly see, and they should pursue such examination with the conscious purpose of learning how to make better sentences. Any other aim is mere pedantry. If it be con

tended that English grammar should be taught for the sake of the study of foreign language, the answer is that the policy just defined will provide all the foundation that foreign-language teachers have a right to demand and much more than they will actually get through highly formal and technical studies. The topics in grammar included in this report have been carefully sifted and will be found to accord with recent investigations.

Punctuation, so far as it obeys the rules of grammar, should be taught as a part of the study of the grammatical structure of the sentence. The outline of topics in grammar provides automatically for certain topics in punctuation. Matters of punctuation that are purely or primarily rhetorical should be sparingly touched upon in the junior high school for the reason that the pupils are not yet capable of fine distinctions and may easily form the habit of overpunctuating, which is worse than not punctuating at all. Let the pupils realize that marks of punctuation are intended to help the reader's eyes, to prevent his running expressions together that should be noticed separately, and you have laid the foundation for an intelligent use of them. The written work of the pupils will provide the matter for practice.

Regular work in spelling is necessary in the junior high school. Drill should be centered upon the words that investigation shows are frequently misspelled by the pupils of these years. The lists should be made up of the class list, gathered by the teacher from the written work, and the grade list, suggested by the work of Ayres and others.1 Classes in the commercial group will require a special and more extensive drill than other classes because of the test to which they are likely soon to be put. Subject spelling should be carried on in history and other classes so as to prevent the misspelling of proper nouns and technical terms. In addition to all this each pupil should keep in a notebook lists of the words with which he had special difficulty and he should be required to master them.

Much of the recitation in spelling should be devoted to presenting the new words. Not more than three or four distinctly new and different words should be taken up in a single class period. These should be spoken, written, divided into syllables, used in context, and compared with similar and dissimilar words as to form, meaning, and use. Special attention should be called to the part of each word which is likely to be misspelled. The word should be reviewed several times at lengthening intervals-one day, two days, etc. By dint of such treatment pupils may be taught to spell correctly all the words they wish to use and should be required to do it. The study of word structure and derivation, valuable in other ways, will support the work in spelling and should be systematically carried on.

1 See spelling in the bibliography.