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the gymnasium; Greek is omitted; English is added as a second modern language; and the time devoted to arithmetic, mathematics, natural science, and drawing is increased. The distinctions will be seen by comparing the columns of totals included in the time-table.

Time-table of the realgymnasium, showing, by classes, weekly hours for each subject, with totals for the three types of institutions.

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Curricula in those subjects which are generally emphasized in preparation for higher technical studies are given, for the realgymnasia, in the following outline.

Languages-(a) German.-Complete mastery of the native tongue, both in speech and writing, is insisted upon. A fair acquaintance with the national literature, with understanding of the spirit of the sagas and the old Germanic world represented by them, is also a requirement. The instruction in German calls for numerous tasks executed outside the school hours (Häusliche Aufsätze), such as composition, theses, essays, reading of classics, etc.

(b) Modern.-French and English are the two modern languages generally taught in German realgymnasia. The study of French is given more time than that of English.

The instruction in French aims at imparting to the students an understanding of the important works of French literature of the last three centuries, and facility in the practical use of the language, both in speech and writing. The entire course of French extends over seven years, beginning with the quarta. Stress is placed on grammar and translation in the earlier period, and later upon reading and conversation. Translation into French is an important exercise in the higher classes.

The instruction in English is carried out in a similar manner, although a year less and fewer hours a week are given to it than to French. English works since the time of Shakespeare are chosen for

the literary study. Special attention is given during the last year of the course to technical and scientific English terminology.

Mathematics. The program of mathematics in the realgymnasium is identical with that of the oberrealschule and is broader in scope than that followed in the classical gymnasia. It comprises: (a) Arithmetic up to the proof of the binomial theorem for indefinite exponents; (b) algebra through equations of the third degree; (c) plane geometry, including symmetry; and spherical geometry, including principles of descriptive geometry; (d) plane and spherical trigonometry; (e) introduction to the theory of maxima and minima; (ƒ) plane analytic geometry.

The study of mathematics is connected with extensive work in the solution of problems.

Natural sciences.-Under this head are included botany, zoology, mineralogy, physics, and chemistry. Only general notions of biology are taught. Physics, beginning with the upper tertia and pursued to the end of the course, is studied very thoroughly, with considerable laboratory work. Chemistry begins with the lower secunda and is completed in the last year with several more important chapters from organic chemistry. Mineralogy is limited mainly to crystallography and the knowledge of chemical composition and physical properties of the popularly known minerals.

ORGANIZATION AND EQUIPMENT OF HIGHER TECHNICAL SCHOOLS.

Introduction. At the head of the institutions for technical education in Germany are the technical high schools (Hochschulen), 12 in number, which are named from the cities in which they are respectively located (see table, p. 26). Many of these institutions were originally trade or monotechnical schools intended for practical instruction in architecture, engineering, mechanical technology, etc. As industrial necessities multiplied and their scientific bearings were more fully recognized, the scope of the schools broadened. Higher mathematics, drawing, designing, and the theory or rationale of the subjects claimed consideration. These higher elements gained more and more prominence, and eventually chemistry, chemical technology, physics, and its applications in electricity, naval architecture, surveying, forestry, etc., were added and the curriculum broadened by the inclusion of languages, political economy, etc. At the same time the equipment for practical work was lavishly supplied according to the requirements of the different technical departments. During the early period of this movement Germany was a comparatively poor country, but the rulers realized at that time that industrial and economic supremacy would depend upon the application of scientific knowledge to the workshop, the factory, and to industry in general. Under this

idea technical education was developed with a scientific spirit and methods of its own. Finally, the governments of the different German States authorized the higher schools of this order to grant the degree, of doctor in engineering; hence the schools now have equal rank with the universities.

Departments. The technical high schools of Germany all have the four departments of architecture, civil engineering, mechanical engineering, and technical chemistry. At the same time they present special features; for example, Breslau comprises five departments organized in three sections, one of which is devoted to general science; Darmstadt and Karlsruhe have each a special department of electrotechnics, which in the other schools, excepting only Hannover, is included under mechanical engineering; in Hannover this department is connected with the chemical technical department. Berlin has a special independent division for naval architecture and marine engineering, Brunswick a special department for pharmacy, Karlsruhe for forestry, and Munich for agriculture.

As a rule, the instruction for the first year is chiefly general in character; later on specialization takes place according to the branch of engineering chosen by the student.

Government. The technical high schools are invested with powers of self-government which are exercised by the staff of professors, subject only to general supervision by the ministry of education and ecclesiastical affairs. The organization is similar to that of the academic universities. The head of the technical school is called "chancellor" or "rector." The departments of study are controlled by councils, consisting of the regular professors (ordentliche professoren), presided over by a dean or president chosen by themselves. These deans or presidents generally constitute the university senate. The main point to be noted is that the professors have practically full control of the institutions.

The teaching staff comprises:

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1. Full professors (ordentliche professoren).

2. Extraordinary professors (ausserordentliche professoren). 3. Lecturers (dozenten).

4. Private lecturers (privat dozenten).

5. Assistants.

6. Honorary professors.

7. Instructors.

The staff is invariably large, and many of the professors are men of distinction who have made original contributions to science. The statutory salaries are small, being usually less than $500 per annum, but the actual emoluments may amount to more than 10 times this amount, exceeding even $20,000 per annum for men of special eminence.

Pensions are granted to all definitely engaged professors and docents, the amounts varying, however, in different German States. Equipments. The equipments of the several departments are ample and generally on a lavish scale. They include technical libraries, laboratories, workshops, and specialized museums.

THE HIGHER TECHNICAL SCHOOL OF BERLIN

At Charlottenburg.

The Technical High School of Berlin (Königliche Technische Hochschule zu Berlin) is situated at Charlottenburg, a suburb of that city, and is noted for its magnificent buildings and lavish equipments. The institution was founded in 1879 by the union of two existing schools and was raised to its present status by a royal decree of 1882. As stated in its charter, the purpose of the school is to afford higher training for the technical callings in State and public service, as well as in industrial enterprises, and to foster the sciences and arts pertaining to technical instruction. The school comprises the following departments (abteilungen): Architecture; civil engineering; mechanical engineering and electrotechnics; naval architecture and marine engineering; chemistry and metallurgy; general science, especially mathematics and natural history.

Every department has its technical library and ample provision of laboratories, workshops, etc.

The annual session extends from October 1 to August 1, and in addition to the long summer vacation there are two intermissions of 14 days each, one at Christmas and the other at Easter.

The student. The student is free to choose his lectures, but he is advised to follow all the studies of the department he selects. Students may be admitted, as in the other technical high schools, who have secured the maturity certificate from a German gymnasium, realschule, or oberrealschule, also those who have the certificate from a Bavarian industrial school, or from the Royal Trade Academy at Chemnitz. Germans educated outside of Germany are admitted when their preparation entitles them to attend a school of higher instruction of equal standing. The minister of education decides as to the equivalence of the preparation. A foreign student must have a certificate showing the completion of a nine-year course of preparatory education, or its equivalent, which would entitle him to enter a university in his own country. He must also show such knowledge of the German language as will enable him to follow the instruction. There are no further requirements for the admission of foreign

students. Women are admitted under the same conditions as men. At the end of the year, or upon leaving the university, every student may obtain a certificate of the courses attended, exercises followed, and examinations passed.

Special students.-Persons who have not sufficient preparation to enter as regular students may be admitted as special students to any one of the departments. They receive credit for lectures and laboratory work, but other academic certificates are not conferred upon them. The admission of women as special students in all cases requires the consent of the minister.

Degrees. The school confers the diplomas of engineering and doctor of engineering (see p. 24).

Fees. The entrance fee required of all students is 30 marks ($7.50). The fee for regular courses is estimated according to the number of hours per week for each half year or semester. Lectures for regular students, 4 marks; practical work for regular students, 3 marks; lectures for special students, 5 marks; practical work for special students, 4 marks. For practical work in inorganic, organic technical chemistry, metallurgical, electrochemistry and photochemical laboratories, the charge is 85 marks per half year. The total fees for the whole year would range from 300 to 350 marks ($75 to $87.50). The fee for the examination for diploma of engineer is 60 marks ($15) for Germans and 120 marks ($30) for foreigners. The fee for examination for the diploma of doctor of engineer is 120 marks ($30) for Germans and 240 marks ($60) for foreigners.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING.

The program of the department of mechanical engineering has been selected for close analysis with the view of establishing the distinctive characteristics of the system in operation at the institution.

It must be noted that the program, as reviewed in this chapter, is by no means rigid or obligatory in all its extent. The students are given a liberal measure of free choice in the selection of time in which to study a particular subject, and are expressly warned not to overtax their powers by taking a great number of subjects. They are, however, required to submit their individual plans of study to the deans of their respective departments and to follow their advice in the matter.

The department of mechanical engineering offers five options, as follows: (A) General machine construction, (B) transportation engineering, (C) electrical engineering, (D) research and operation of machines, and (E) engineering administration. The first two years are devoted to the principles of technical science common to all

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