istry; physico-chemical exercises; examination of vegetable and animal fats, oils, and wax; examination of mineral oils and other naptha products; organization of chemical laboratories and plants; principles of construction of use to industrial

managers.

DIPLOMAS AND DEGREES.

In accordance with a royal decree issued on the occasion of its jubilee celebration (Oct. 11, 1899), the Charlottenburg school is authorized to confer the diploma of engineer (Diplom-Ingenieur) and that of doctor of engineering (Doktor-Ingenieur); subsequently the right was extended to all the other German technical high schools. The diploma of certificated engineer is conferred in virtue of an examination which tests the preparation of the candidate by academic and scientific studies for independent professional activity in his chosen subject. This is inscribed in each case upon the diploma. The candidate for the diploma of doctor of engineering must have secured the lower diploma, and must present a thesis on a scientific subject pertaining to his specialty. When the thesis has been approved, the applicant for the doctor's degree must submit to an oral examination covering the subject matter of his specialty.

SCHOOL FOR MINING ENGINEERING, FREIBERG, SAXONY.

The technical high school at Aachen is the only one that makes provision for mining engineering. This branch is the province of special schools or academies of which the mining school at Freiberg, Saxony, founded in 1765, is the most renowned. The school comprises three sections, for mining engineers, for mine surveyors, and for engineers in iron works, respectively. Each section offers a four years' course of instruction. The entrance requirements are similar to those of the other technical high schools. Candidates must be at least 18 years of age, and must offer the maturity certificate of one of the nine-year secondary schools of Germany, or give proof of equivalent preparation. Foreigners must not only show certificates of equivalent value, but must be sufficiently familiar with the German language to follow the instruction with profit; their papers must be officially translated and legalized by the consul, minister, or ambassador. Special students include adults who have already had a technical or scientific training, or young men who desire to advance themselves in some special branch of science.

The entrance fee for German students is 12 marks, for foreigners 24 marks; in addition 3 marks are required for insurance against accident or sickness. The fees for lectures are 6 marks for weekly lectures for the whole school year; the weekly fee for practical exercises is reckoned at the rate charged for a course of weekly lectures.

The degrees conferred are mining engineer, mine surveyor, and engineer in iron works. The examination fees for the degrees are 50 marks for German citizens and 100 marks for foreigners.

The courses of instruction are highly specialized and in the section for mining engineers include, besides the technical branches, the following: Political and state science, general law, mining law, colonial mining law, social insurance, designs for mining and metallurgic buildings, mine and metallurgic statistics.

The elaboration of the course of instruction in national and state economics is significant. The syllabus includes:

Fundamental conceptions. Necessities of life. Goods value. Intercourse. Wealth. Economics. National economy.

Production. Nature. Work and capital as factors in production. Productive cooperation.

Circulation of goods. Commerce, traffic, commercial policy. Money, credit, and price.

Distribution of goods. Income, wages, interest, contracting profits. Ground rent. National income.

Consumption. Manner of consumption. Economical and extravagant luxury Equilibrium between production and consumption. Economic institutions. Insurance.

Development of national economy. Antiquity and middle ages. Mercantile system. Physiocratic system. Adam Smith. Free trade and protection. Com

munism, socialism, and anarchism. Social reform.

Financial science. State expenditure. Productivity of same. State revenues. Private revenues. Fees and taxes. State economy. State credit and debt. Voluntary and forced loans. Amortization. Organs of financial administration.

The course in mining and metallurgical statistics includes:

Definition and aims of statistical science, methods of investigation, aids thereto. Importance of statistics for economy and practice. Statistics of the mines, metallurgical, and salt works of the various countries, having special reference to any variations, and their causes. Statistics of imports, export, consumption, and prices in mining and metallurgical industries. Wages and workmen.

ROYAL TECHNICAL SCHOOL OF SAXONY.

This school, founded at Dresden in 1828, is intended to afford the complete scientific and artistic development required for technical professions and for the preparation of teachers for technical scientific branches, including pure mathematics, physics, and chemistry.

The school is divided into the following departments: Architectural engineering, mechanical, chemical, and general. The scholastic year begins at Easter, but the student can enter at the commencement of either the winter or summer semester.

The requirements for entrance are similar to those of other technical schools, i. e., the maturity certificate of a German gymnasium, realgymnasium or oberrealschule, the trade academy at Chemnitz, or a Bavarian industrial school. The equivalence of a foreign certificate to the German maturity certificate is decided by the rector. Hearers and visitors are admitted as in other technical schools. Women are admitted under the same conditions as men.

Lectures begin in October and end in March. Fees for lectures, exercises in groups, and seminar exercises are 4 marks for one hour

each week per semester; for other exercises 3 marks. Foreigners, in addition to the regular fees, pay 50 marks for the winter semester. The fees for the diploma examination are as follows: Fifty marks for the preliminary examination, 75 marks for the principal examination, and 4 marks for business expenses, total 129 marks. For foreigners the fees are doubled.

FRANCE.

DISTINCTIVE CHARACTERISTICS OF TECHNICAL EDUCATION.

The general scheme of technical education in France differs from that of other European countries as a consequence of the influences under which it originated. French savants were the first to foresee the significance of science in the realm of art and industry, and the early period of the Revolution was marked by the creation of national institutions for utilizing the forces and furthering the conquests of science. Chief among the institutions created at that time were the Museum of Natural History (1793), attached to the Jardin des Plantes and intended to serve as a center of demonstration and research; the Conservatoire des Arts et Métiers (conservatory of arts and crafts), created by a decree of 1794, and intended to foster the higher technical training of artisans; and the Ecole Polytechnique, also created by decree of 1794, a school of engineering intended to prepare artillerists and engineers for the army and navy and technical experts for various public services.

The three institutions named are still flourishing, and while they differ greatly in spirit and methods they are alike in the emphasis they place upon pure science and the unity of the sciences as factors in the higher technical education.

Provision for the lower order of technical education arose from time to time as industrial conditions demanded, and measures were eventually adopted looking to the classification of the various agencies engaged in this work.

The congress on technical education held at Paris in connection with the Universal Exposition of 1889 recognized three orders of technical education, primary, secondary, and higher. These, however, do not form stages in an ascending series; each order has its distinct purposes and agencies. In the higher technical institutions the arts and sciences are pursued with reference to their application to technical professions required in the State service, either directly or indirectly, through the promotion of great enterprises.

PRELIMINARY EDUCATION-GENERAL AND MATHEMATICAL.

For admission to the higher technical institutions applicants must have completed the full course of secondary education comprised in the lycée program. This course is organized in two cycles: The lower cycle covers four years and leads to a certificate which has value for

students entering at once upon business or industrial pursuits. The higher cycle, covering three years, completes the full course leading to the bachelor's diploma which is required for admission to the universities and higher technical schools. In the lower cycle the studies are arranged in two courses, classical and modern, between which the student has choice. The second cycle comprises three years, of which the first two offer four options as follows: 1. LatinGreek; 2. Latin-modern languages; 3. Latin-science; 4. Sciencemodern languages.

In the last year the lycée program is divided into two parts, philosophy and mathematics.

It will be seen that provision has been made in the lycées for all the orders of secondary education, from the purely classical to the strictly modern. It does not follow, however, that the pupils who contemplate higher technical studies must select the extreme realistic course. The classical studies are still so much in vogue in France that Latin is generally demanded even in preparation for technical careers. Absolutely essential, however, for those intending to enter the École Polytechnique is the "classe de mathématiques" of the last year of the lycée course.

Courses im mathematics. The program of mathematics studied in this class deserves special attention in view of its relation to higher technical studies. It is universally recognized that higher technical education calls for special mathematical preparation. The French system goes further than any other toward the solution of this question. The "classe de mathématiques" represents a distinct attempt to improve the mathematical preparation of graduates in view of the requirements of higher studies.

The mathematics is given eight hours a week and consists of review study with special emphasis on the theoretical and philosophical side of mathematics. The mathematical subjects that have been studied earlier in the lycée course are now reviewed with reference to the theoretical basis of mathematical science. The training thus secured is further systematized and unified by the course of scientific philosophy pertaining to the classification and hierarchy of science and the methods by which it operates.

Viewed in the light of its relation to higher mathematical or technical studies, this course reflects the spirit that places the development of the student's intellect above that of his specific aptness in application of formulas to the solution of mathematical problems. The entire course of the "classe de mathématiques" has the obvious aim of developing mathematical habits of mind in the wider sense, the ability of the student to attack successfully new problems, and to pursue intelligently the study of new subjects.