better results if an assistant superintendent were employed to supervise instruction in the primary grades or to have direction of educational measurements. The assistant superintendents in these cities usually have the entire city as their field of work. The number is determined by the board of education.

PRINCIPALS.

In cities having large elementary school buildings the plan of having a supervising principal in charge of each building is generally advocated. If the buildings are small, the plan of placing a supervising principal over a group of buildings is considered better than that of having a supervising principal for each building, at least from a financial point of view.

It is customary in cities of 100,000 or more population to place a supervising principal in charge of a building. In 35 of these cities this is the custom. In 3 there is a principal for a group of buildings, in 2 both plans are in operation, and in 1 there are no supervising principals. As a rule a supervising principal has under his supervision from 8 to 40 teachers. In a few of the group of largest cities clerical assistance is provided for principals; the feeling is that, if a principal is employed to supervise at a salary of $2,400 or $3,000 a year, it is uneconomical not to provide him with clerical assistance. In at least one large city where there are supervising principals at a salary of $2,000 a year, there is practically no supervision, because the time of the principals is taken up in looking after clerical details. One of the weak spots in many school systems lies in the fact that principals who are employed to help teachers teach do not have an opportunity of doing so.

Eighty-six cities having between 25,000 and 100,000 population employ supervising principals; 14 have supervising principals for a group of buildings, 6 have both plans in operation, and 22 do not employ supervising principals. In many cities the principal teaches part time.

The number of teachers under the supervision of a principal ranges from 8 to 35. In only a few is clerical assistance provided.

For information regarding these facts in each city, see pages 46-53.

TEACHERS.

Selection.-The most approved method of selecting teachers is on the initiative of the superintendent of schools. It is generally thought that a superintendent should have the power of appointing teachers, subject to the approval of the school board rather than subject to the approval of a committee.

In practice there are many different methods of procedure in selecting teachers. In some few cities there are no teachers' committees, the board making the selection of teachers on the recommendation of the superintendent. In other cities a teachers' committee and the superintendent together select teachers. Just what part superintendents have in the selection of teachers is difficult to determine from a questionnaire. The following is a summary of the part taken by superintendents in the selection of teachers: In 9 cities of 100,000 or more population the superintendent appoints; in 17, he recommends; in 9, he nominates either one teacher or a list; in 2, he has equal say with the committee. In 53 cities with between 25,000 and 100,000 population the superintendent recommends to a committee of the board; in 35, he "nominates"; in 23, "appoints"; in 16, "advises"; in 1 he "has no power"; in 1 he "passes on qualifications."

There are 22 cities of 100,000 or more population reporting teachers' committees. The part taken by the committee may be summarized as follows: In 15 cities the teachers' committee recommends action to the board on the superintendent's recommendation; in 3, the committee selects from a list submitted by the superintendent; in 2, it appoints; in 2, confers with the superintendent.

Of the cities with between 25,000 and 100,000 population, 110 report a teachers' committee. In 25 of these the teachers' committee recommends to the board on the superintendent's recommendation; in 26, consults with the superintendent; in 14, approves his selection; in 14, recommends; in 7, takes no part; in 3, passes on superintendent's recommendation; in 5, receives superintendent's nominations; in 6, nominates to the board; in 1, has entire power; in 1, transmits superintendent's recommendation.

In the group of cities of 100,000 or more population 20 of 36 cities reporting say that teachers are selected according to rank from an eligible list as determined by an examination. In the group having between 25,000 and 100,000 population, only 26 out of 134 reporting select teachers from an eligible list as determined by an examination.

The custom is to appoint teachers for a probationary term of four months to three years in cities of 100,000 or more population; 29 of 39 cities reporting provide a probationary period. In 16 cities the probationary period is one year; in 7, three years; in 4, two years; in 1, five months; and in 1, four months. Of 129 cities having between 25,000 and 100,000 population reporting, 70 provide for a probationary appointment. In 13 the probationary term is less than one year; in 38, one year; in 10, two years; in 7, three years; and in 2, four years.

Though life tenure has been granted teachers in a number of cities, students of school administration as a rule do not favor the plan. Most favor indefinite tenure after a teacher has served a probationary period of a few years. That a school board should have the right to terminate a contract on the recommendation of the superintendent of schools and only on his recommendation is the generally accepted opinion. A business corporation employs its office force for an indefinite period. Whenever any employee fails to render the service required he is dismissed. The same rule should hold among school boards for teachers, principals, and superintendents. The movement for permanent tenure has come about because school boards in many instances have dropped teachers without cause and without the recommendation of the superintendent.

The middle ground between indiscriminate dismissal of teachers and permanent tenure as outlined by Dr. E. P. Cubberley expresses the generally accepted opinion of school administrators. Dr. Cubberley says:1

Between these two extremes lies a middle ground which is just both to teachers and to the schools, and that is indefinite tenure. When a new teacher enters the service of the city, in any capacity, he or she should be under observation for two or three years, varying somewhat with different teachers and different positions, and during this time there should be annual reappointments, on the recommendation of the superintendent. After this probationary period has been successfully passed, the teacher should then either be reelected for some long period, say four or five years, or placed on indefinite tenure. Under the former the position would be guaranteed for the period stated, subject to reconsideration at the end of each such period; under the latter the annual elections would cease for all time, the teacher being merely continued in the service from year to year without any action on either side, and until such time as the board, for cause, and upon the recommendation of the superintendent, should see fit to terminate the contract.

This right to terminate the contract for cause is an important right, and should not be denied to school authorities. To deny it is to say that the teachers' places are more important than the educational rights of the children. No superintendent who is wise will desire to dismiss many teachers or principals. If a teacher or principal will cooperate, it is easier to educate them than to dismiss them, and far more pleasant. If superintendents were given legal control of the selection and designation for retention of all teachers, so that boards of education and their committees were deprived of all powers in the matter except the approval or the disapproval of the superintendent's recommendations, the question of the dismissal of teachers would, in most communities, occupy a less important position. Still, good teachers do not always continue to be good, and an occasional removal will need to be made for the welfare of the service.

Examination of teachers.-In both groups of cities teachers are usually licensed by the superintendent of schools or by a board of examiners appointed by the school board. Under the latter plan the superintendent usually recommends the board of examiners.

The number of members on the board of examiners in cities of 100,000 or more population ranges from 1 to 40 members. The usual

1 Public School Administration, p. 215.

number is 3. In 18 of 29 cities of this group reporting, all applicants for teaching positions are examined. In 8, exceptions are made of State normal school graduates. In 29 of 38 cities reporting, there is a city training school and in only 1 is it a part of the regular high school. In the other cities two years are required in addition to the four years in high school. In 4 cities all the teachers are selected from graduates of the city training school; in 4, from 90 to 100 per cent; in 5, from 80 to 90 per cent; in 1, from 70 to 80 per cent; in 2, from 60 to 70 per cent; in 4, from 50 to 60 per cent; in 3, from 40 to 50 per cent; in 1, from 30 to 40 per cent; and in 1, from 20 to 30 per cent. In 16 cities teachers are promoted on experience, in 13 on experience and efficiency, and in 5 on merit.

In cities with between 25,000 and 100,000 population the number of members on the examining board varies from 1 to 10, the usual number being 3.

In 25 of 99 cities reporting, all applicants are examined for teachers' license. In 70 of 87 cities reporting, State normal school graduates are not required to be examined by the city examiner.

Of 131 cities reporting, 37 maintain a teachers' training school. In 10 of the 37 cities this is a part of the high-school course. In 6 cities, one year is required in addition to a four-year high-school course; in in 20, two years; and in 1, three years.

Of 29 cities reporting, 9 require that all new teachers be selected from the normal training school; 6 require from 75 to 95 per cent to be city training school graduates; 8 require from 50 to 75 per cent; 9, from 25 to 50 per cent; and 6, less than 25 per cent.

The practice of some cities in supplying the schools almost entirely from graduates of the city training school is considered poor. Probably no definite rule can be made as to what percentage of teachers elected each year should be graduates of the city normal, but possibly not more than 50 or 60 per cent, the idea being that there shall be an opportunity to bring in the very best from other cities.

Of 128 cities reporting, teachers in 34 are promoted on experience, in 59 on experience and merit, and in 35 on merit.

Cities that are promoting teachers on experience alone are violating the fundamental principle that merit should be rewarded. It is generally agreed that three factors should be considered in the promotion of teachers-merit, training, and experience. If there were some scientific way of ascertaining the real merit of a teacher's work, this would be the only factor to be considered.

SUPERINTENDENT OF BUILDINGS.

In cities of 100,000 population or more a necessary officer is the superintendent of buildings. In 38 of 45 cities reporting, such an officer is employed. In cities with between 25,000 and 100,000

population, 74 of 136 cities reporting employ a superintendent of buildings. In several instances the superintendent of buildings holds another official position as clerk of the board or business manager.

In the former group of cities it is customary for the superintendent of buildings to be independent of the superintendent of schools. Of the cities reporting on this point, in 4 he is subordinate to the superintendent; in 21, independent; in 5, "cooperative." In 17 cities with between 25,000 and 100,000 population reporting, the superintendent of buildings is subordinate to the superintendent of schools; in 28, he is independent of the superintendent of school; in 10, the two "cooperate."

Salaries. In cities of 300,000 or more population the median salary paid the superintendent of buildings is $3,500; the minimum, $2,000; the maximum, $10,000; the lower quartile, $2,400; the upper quartile, $6,000.

In cities with between 100,000 and 300,000 population, the median salary is $2,400; the minimum, $1,200; the maximum, $4,000; the lower quartile, $1,800; the upper quartile, $3,000.

In cities with between 25,000 and 100,000 population, the median salary of the superintendent of buildings is $1,500; the minimum, $400; the maximum, $3,600; the lower quartile, $1,400; the upper quartile, $1,650.

SUPERINTENDENT OF SUPPLIES OR BUSINESS AGENT.

Of 45 cities of 100,000 or more population, 33 employ a superintendent of supplies. In a number of instances some other officer, usually the business manager or secretary of the board, acts in this capacity. In 5 of these cities he is subordinate to the superintendent of schools; in 15 he is independent; in 3, they cooperate. The other cities did not report upon the relations between these two officers.

Of 113 cities with between 25,000 and 100,000 population reporting, 14 employ a superintendent of supplies; in 13 others the clerk of the school board or the superintendent of buildings acts in this capacity. In 11 cities he is subordinate to the superintendent of schools; in 5 he is independent; in 4 the two cooperate.

The general opinion of the students of school administration is that the officer who purchases supplies should be subordinate to the superintendent of schools. One of the fundamental principles in school administration is that there should be simplicity in the organization of the administrative staff. At the head of the executive staff should stand the superintendent of schools. Subordinate to him should be all other executive officers. If there is divided responsibility among the different officers, friction is likely to arise. If the superintendent of schools is made the organizer, the coordinator, so to speak, of the entire city school system, there will be less lost motion.