talk as well as he could, both as to sentiment and expression, by which means what had been originally effort became familiar and easy."

The first aim of the beginner should be to write grammatically. The rules of grammar have already been given in the volumes of this Course, and it will be unnecessary further to refer to them here. The young student should accustom himself to pause and analyse his own sentences, and give an intelligible account of each word and phrase which he uses, by showing in what relation it stands to the general construction of the sentence and to the other parts of it. By this means, he will acquire accuracy. After a time such aid may be dispensed with. Thus, while a house is being built, it is necessary to erect scaffolding; but this is taken down when the edifice is complete, and the building then stands alone.

We proceed to enter into the subject more in detail, by presenting the chief rules which have been given by eminent authorities for the writing of English.*

The qualities of a good style may be ranged under two heads, namely,

(1) Those which relate to Perspicuity. (2) Those which relate to Ornament.

I. PERSPICUITY.

This is the fundamental quality of a good style. The first aim of a writer should be to make himself perfectly understood by his readers. No merits of any other kind, no elegance of language or harmony of diction, can make up for a want of clearness.

Perspicuity of thought and expression may be considered not

* For some of the matter, and many of the examples contained in this chapter we are indebted to Blair's "Lectures," a work which may be studied with great advantage by pupil teachers in the later years of their engage

ment.

only as a negative virtue, a mere freedom from defect; it is a positive beauty in style, since it adds to the pleasure of the reader, and carries him through the subject with a degree of satisfaction which cannot be derived from the perusal of an obscure composition.

Perspicuity may be considered with reference to (1) Single Words and Phrases, and (2) Sentences.

1. SINGLE WORDS AND PHRASES. required in these are,

The qualities

(a) Purity. Only those words and phrases should be used which properly belong to the language which is being used. English writers sometimes deform their compositions with words, expressions, and idioms borrowed from other languages. Thus we find such words as café, vraisemblance, coup-d'œil, raison d'être, cortège, politesse, hauteur (from the French), effluvium, sine quâ non, ad captandum, cæteris paribus (from the Latin), geist, father-land (from the German), constantly occurring in the writings of some authors, and often introduced in the most unnecessary and pedantic manner, as though the author's desire were, not so much to illustrate his subject, as to make a vain display of his own learning. Such words and phrases may sometimes be used with advantage, even in a rich and copious language like the English; but if they are not employed with great moderation and discretion, and only when really necessary for supplying an actual deficiency, they only serve to load the composition with a number of offensive excrescences.

Obsolete words should also be avoided. Modern writers should use modern English. It is true that many of our old words have fallen out of use, and that some of them deserved a longer existence; still, since they no longer belong to the language, they ought not to be employed. Such expressions as quoth he, I wist not, behest, selfsame, fall under this head.

Provincialisms, or words, phrases, and idioms peculiar to certain counties or districts, must also be avoided, as well as Scotticisms, or forms peculiar to Scotland.

Many objectionable words and phrases have recently been imported from America, as skedaddle, Britisher, etc. The American fashion of forming verbs from nouns; as, to interview, to cable, to wire, etc., should not be adopted.

Low and vulgar expressions should of course be rejected. There are even many familiar words and phrases allowable in ordinary conversation which are by no means adapted for serious writing. Such expressions as topsy-turvy, currying favour with any one, creeping up the sleeve of any one, see with half an eye, to bolt, etc., are not to be admitted. The following sentence is faulty in this respect "Meantime the Britons, left to shift for themselves, were forced to call in the Saxons for their defence."

Some authors offend against purity of language by coining words in an injudicious manner. Only writers who have attained to the highest eminence possess the right of coining words at all; and even by these it should be done with great judgment and discretion. Some authors affect a German style, and form compound words by joining several smaller ones together in a manner which is utterly foreign to the genius of the English language. Such expressions as, The-never-to-be-forgotten day, birth-land, time-element, are not English at all.

(6) Propriety. It is not sufficient that a writer should employ only words and phrases which really belong to the language. Those which are used should be judiciously selected, with due regard to the exact meaning the author wishes to convey. A style may be pure and yet deficient in propriety, since the words and phrases may be ill chosen, not adapted to the subject, nor fully expressive of the author's ideas. The following remarks apply to the subject of propriety.

Such words and phrases should be employed as are suitable to the subject. If it be of a common and familiar kind, simple words, more particularly those of Saxon origin, should be used; while in compositions of a more elevated kind, and addressed to a more learned class of readers, less familiar words, those especially which are derived from Latin and Greek sources, are

more suitable, and often indeed absolutely indispensable. The difference referred to may be illustrated by comparing the simple language of Bunyan's Pilgrim's Progress with the lofty and classical style of Gibbon's History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire.

Technical terms, those which are peculiar to various arts and sciences, should be very sparingly used in ordinary compositions. Scientific terms, nautical phrases (as tack to the larboard, sweep the anchor, etc.), are out of place when addressed to general readers, though necessary in works treating of the subjects to which they belong.

The same word should not be repeated too often in the same sentence or paragraph. The sense should not however be sacrificed in order to avoid a repetition of this kind. Lord Macaulay is rather fond of repeating the same word, for the sake of emphasis. "We admire his genius; we love the kind nature which appears in all his writings; and we cherish his memory as much as if we had known him personally. But we must plainly say," etc. The young student should be careful in imitating sentences of this kind. Only a practised writer can venture on such repetitions with safety, and if they are not accompanied with good taste, the effect is very disagreeable. In giving mere lists of places or facts, repetitions of words are not generally objectionable, and sometimes are scarcely to be avoided.

(c) Precision. The words employed should express exactly what the author means. There should be no doubt or difficulty whatever in the mind of the reader as to the precise sense which the words are intended to convey.

Equivocal or ambiguous words should be avoided. An author writes: "As for such animals as are mortal or noxious, we have a right to destroy them." Here the term mortal (intended to convey the idea of “deadly”) also means subject to death," and the sense is confused. In the sentence, "I long since learned to like nothing but what you do," the phrase what you do may mean either "what you like" or "what you per

form.” Again, “He aimed at nothing less than the crown may signify either, "Nothing was less aimed at by him than the crown," or, "He even aimed at the possession of the crown."

The use of exaggerated language should be avoided. Some persons are very fond of using such words as tremendous, awful, prodigious, where much milder terms would be sufficient to convey the degree of intensity they wish to impart to the ideas they have in their minds. If expressions of such extreme force be used to denote only moderate degrees of the qualities referred to, there are none left for the purpose of describing facts and feelings of a really excessive or extraordinary nature.

Great care should be exercised in the proper use of terms regarded as synonymous, or having the same signification. There are probably no two words exactly synonymous, and the utmost attention must be paid to the precise shades of meaning conveyed by words which resemble each other closely in signification. The following examples will render this more clear :

Custom, habit. Custom relates to the action; habit to the actor. By custom we mean the frequent repetition of the same act; by habit the effect which that repetition produces on the mind or body. "By the custom of walking often in the streets one acquires a habit of idleness."

Haughtiness, disdain. Haughtiness is founded on the high opinion we entertain of ourselves; disdain on the mean opinion we have of others.

Entire, complete. A thing is entire by wanting none of its parts; complete by wanting none of the appendages which belong to it. "The man has an entire house to himself, but there is not one complete apartment in it."

Surprised, astonished, amazed, confounded. We are surprised with what is new or unexpected, astonished at what is vast or great, amazed at what is incomprehensible, confounded by what is shocking or terrible.

Let the young student try the effect, in a beautiful passage from some good author, of taking out some word and substituting for it some other which appears to have just the same