tions then prevailing was Martin Luther, the occasion of which is fully related under the article LuTHERANS.

in the corrupted system of Chris-which were inculcated upon them; tianity, began by Luther in the when, in 1517, the empire of suyear 1517. perstition began to decline, and Before the period of the refor-has continued to do so ever since. mation, the pope had in the most The person who made the first ataudacious manner declared him-tack on the extravagant superstiself the sovereign of the whole world. All the parts of it which were inhabited by those who were not Christians he accounted to be inhabited by nobody; and if Chris- The reformation began in the tians took it into their heads to city of Wittemberg, in Saxony, possess any of those countries, he but was not long confined either gave them full liberty to make war to that city or province. In 1520, upon the inhabitants without any the Franciscan friars, who had provocation, and to treat them the care of promulgating indulwith no more humanity than they gences in Switzerland, were opwould have treated wild beasts. posed by Zuinglius, a man not inThe countries, if conquered, were ferior in understanding and knowto be parcelled out according to lege to Luther himself. He prothe pope's pleasure; and dreadful ceeded with the greatest vigour, was the situation of that prince even at the very beginning, to who refused to obey the will of overturn the whole fabric of pothe holy pontiff. In consequence pery: but his opinions were deof this extraordinary authority clared erroneous by the univerwhich the pope had assumed, he sities of Cologne and Louvain. at last granted to the king of Por- Notwithstanding this, the magistugal all the countries to the east-trates of Zurich approved of his ward of Cape Non in Africa, and proceedings; and that whole canto the king of Spain all the coun-ton, together with those of Bern, tries to the westward of it. In Basil, and Chaffausen, embraced this was completed in his person his opinions.

the character of Antichrist sitting In Germany, Luther continued in the temple of God, and shewing to make great advances, without himself as God. He had long be-being in the least intimidated by fore assumed the supremacy be- the ecclesiastical censures which longing to the Deity himself in spiritual matters; and now he assumed the same supremacy in worldly matters also, giving the extreme regions of the earth to whom he pleased.

were thundered against him from all quarters, he being continually protected by the German princes, either from religious or political motives, so that his adversaries could not accomplish his destrucEvery thing was quiet, every he- tion as they had done that of retic exterminated, and the whole others. Melancthon, Carlostadius, Christian world supinely acquies-and other men of eminence, also ced in the enormous absurdities greatly forwarded the work of

Luther; and in all probability the|| against them, which to this day the popish hierarchy would have soon Catholics urge with great force; come to an end, in the northern namely, that the Protestants are parts of Europe at least, had not so divided, that it is impossible to the emperor Charles V. given a know who are right or wrong; and severe check to the progress of re- that there cannot be a stronger formation in Germany. proof than these divisions that the

intestine divisions were added the horrors of a civil war, occasioned

and enthusiasm on the other. See ANABAPTISTS.

During the confinement of Lu-whole doctrine is false. To these ther in a castle near Warburg, the reformation advanced rapidly; almost every city in Saxony embrac-by oppression on the one hand, ing the Lutheran opinions. At this time an alteration in the established forms of worship was first These proceedings, however, ventured upon at Wittemberg, by were checked. Luther and Meabolishing the celebration of pri-lancthon were ordered by the vate masses, and by giving the cup elector of Saxony to draw up a as well as the bread to the laity body of laws relating to the form in the Lord's supper. In a short of ecclesiastical government, the time, however, the new opinions method of public worship, &c., were condemned by the university which was to be proclaimed by of Paris, and a refutation of them heralds throughout his dominions. was attempted by Henry VIII, of He, with Melancthon, had transEngland. But Luther was not to lated part of the New Testament be thus intimidated. He published in 1522; on the reading of which his animadversions on both with the people were astonished to find as much acrimony as if he had how different the laws of Christ been refuting the meanest adver- were to those which had been imsary; and a controversy managed posed by the pope, and to which by such illustrious antagonists drew they had been subject. The princes a general attention, and the refor- and the people saw that Luther's mers daily gained new converts opinions were founded on truth. both in France and England. They openly renounced the papal supremacy, and the happy morn of the reformation was welcomed by those who had long sat in superstitious darkness.

But while the efforts of Luther were thus every where crowned with success, the divisions began to prevail which have since so much agitated the reformed churches.- This open resolution so exThe first dispute was between Lu-asperated the patrons of popery, ther and Zuinglius concerning the that they intended to make war manner in which the body and on the Lutherans, who prepared blood of Christ were present in the for defence. In 1526, a diet was eucharist. Both parties maintained assembled at Spire, when the emtheir tenets with the utmost obsti-peror's ambassadors were desired nacy; and, by their divisions, first to use their utmost endeavours to gave their adversaries an argument suppress all disputes about reli

gion, and to insist upon the ri-peror paid no regard, looking gorous execution of the sentence upon it as unjust to condemn, un

the greatest elegance and perspicuity; and thus came forth to view the famous confession of Augsburg.

which had been pronounced against heard, a set of men who had alLuther at Worms. But this opi- ways approved themselves good nion was opposed, and the diet citizens. The emperor, therefore, proved favourable to the reforma- set out for Germany, having altion. But this tranquillity which ready appointed a diet of the they in consequence enjoyed did empire to be held at Augsburg, not last long. In 1529, a new diet where he arrived, and found there was formed, and the power which a full assembly of the members of had been granted to princes of the diet. Here the gentle and pamanaging ecclesiastical affairs till cific Melancthon had been ordered the meeting of a general council to draw up a confession of their was now revoked, and every || faith, which he did, and expressed change declared unlawful that his sentiments and doctrine with should be introduced into the doctrine, discipline, or worship, of the established religion, before the determination of the approaching council was known. This decree This was attempted to be rewas considered as iniquitous and futed by the divines of the church intolerable by several members of of Rome, and a controversy took the diet; and when they found place, which the emperor endeathat all their arguments and re-voured to reconcile, but without monstrances were in vain, they success: all hopes of bringing entered a solemn protest against the decree on the 19th of April, and appealed to the emperor and a future council. Hence arose the denomination of Protestants, which from that time has been given to those who separate from the church of Rome.

about a coalition seemed utterly desperate. The votaries of the church of Rome, therefore, had recourse to the powerful arguments of imperial edicts and the force of the secular arm; and, on the 19th of November, a decree was issued by the emperor's orders. Charles V was in Italy, to every way injurious to the reformwhom the dissenting princes sent ers. Upon which they assembled ambassadors to lay their grievances at Smalcald, where they concludbefore him; but they met with no ed a league of mutual defence encouraging reception from him. against all aggressors, by which The pope and the emperor were they formed the Protestant states in close union at this time, and into one body, and resolved to they had interviews upon the bu-apply to the kings of France and siness. The pope thought the em- England, to implore them to paperor to be too clement, and alleg-tronize their new confederacy. ed that it was his duty to execute The king of France, being the vengeance upon the heretical fac- avowed rival of the emperor, detion. To this, however, the em-termined secretly to cherish those VOL. II. 3 A

sparks of political discord; and that purpose. The pontiff (Clemens the king of England, highly incens-VII), whom the history of past ed against Charles, in complais-councils filled with the greatest ance to whom the pope had long uneasiness, endeavoured to retard retarded, and now openly op- what he could not with decency posed, his long solicited divorce, refuse. At last, in 1533, he made a was equally disposed to strengthen proposal, by his legate, to assemble a league which might be rendered a council at Mantua, Placentia, or formidable to the emperor. Be- Bologna; but the Protestants reing, however, so taken up with fused their consent to the nominathe scheme of divorce, and of abo-tion of an Italian council, and inlishing the papal jurisdiction insisted that a controversy which had England, he had but little leisure its rise in the heart of Germany to attend to them. Meanwhile should be determined within the Charles was convinced that it was limits of the empire. The pope, not a time to extirpate heresy by by his usual artifices, eluded the violence; and at last terms of pa-performance of his own promise; cification were agreed upon at Nuremburg, and ratified solemnly in the diet at Ratisbon; and affairs so ordered by Divine Providence, that the Protestants obtained terms which amounted almost to a toleration of their religion.

and, in 1534, was cut off by death, in the midst of his stratagems. His successor Paul III seemed to shew less reluctance to the assembling a general council, and, in the year 1535, expressed his inclination to convoke one at Soon after the conclusion of Mantua; and, in the year folthe peace at Nuremburg, died John lowing, actually sent circular letelector of Saxony, who was suc-ters for that purpose through all ceeded by his son John Frederic, the states and kingdoms under his a prince of invincible fortitude and jurisdiction. This council was magnanimity, but whose reign was summoned by a bull issued out on little better than one continued the second of June, 1536, to meet train of disappointments and ca- at Mantua the following year: lamities. The religious truce, how-but several obstacles prevented its ever, gave new vigour to the re-meeting; one of the most mateformation. Those who had hither-rial of which was, that Frederick to been only secret enemies to the duke of Mantua had no inclinaRoman pontiff, now publicly threw tion to receive at once so many off his yoke; and various cities guests, some of them very turbuand provinces of Germany enlisted lent, into the place of his resithemselves under the religious dence. On the other hand, the standards of Luther. On the oth- Protestants were firmly persuaded, er hand, as the emperor had now that, as the council was assembled no other hope of terminating the in Italy, and by the authority of religious disputes but by the meet- the pope alone, the latter must ing of a general council, he re- have had an undue influence in peated his requests to the pope for that assembly; of consequence,

that all things must have been car- deliberations which were designed ried by the votaries of Rome. For to heal it. The pope ordered his this reason they assembled at Smal- legate to declare to the diet of cald in the year 1537, where they Spire, assembled in 1542, that he solemnly protested against this par- would, according to the promise tial and corrupt council; and, at the he had already made, assemble a same time, had a new summary of general council, and that Trent their doctrine drawn up by Luther, should be the place of its meeting, in order to present it to the assem- if the diet had no objection to that bled bishops, if it should be requir- city. Ferdinand, and the princes ed of them. This summary, which who adhered to the cause of the had the title of The Articles of pope, gave their consent to this Smalcald, is commonly joined with proposal; but it was vehemently the creeds and confessions of the objected to by the Protestants, Lutheran church. both because the council was summoned by the authority of the pope only, and also because the place was within the jurisdiction of the pope; whereas they desired a free council, which should not be biassed by the dictates nor awed by the proximity of the pontiff. But this protestation produced no effect. Paul III. persisted in his purpose, and issued out his circular letters for the convocation of the council, with the approbation of the emperor. In justice to this pontiff, however, it must be observed, that he shewed himself not to be averse to every reformation. He appointed four cardinals, and three other persons eminent for their learning, to draw up a plan for the reformation of the church in general, and of the church of Rome in particular.The reformation proposed in this plan was, indeed, extremely superficial and partial; yet it contained some particulars which could scarcely have been expected from those who composed it.

After the meeting of the general council in Mantua was thus prevented, many schemes of accommodation were proposed both by the emperor and the Protestants; but, by the artifices of the church of Rome, all of them came to nothing. In 1541, the emperor appointed a meeting at Worms on the subject of religion, between persons of piety and learning, chosen from the contending parties. This conference, however, was, for certain reasons, removed to the diet that was to be held at Ratisbon the same year, and in which the principal subject of deliberation was a memorial presented by a person unknown, containing a project of peace. But the conference produced no other effect than a mutual agreement of the contending parties to refer their matters to a general council, or, if the meeting of such a council should be prevented, to the next German diet.

This resolution was rendered ineffectual by a variety of incidents, which widened the breach, and put off to a farther day the

All this time the emperor had been labouring to persuade the Protestants to consent

to the