8. Of the Fixed Stars.

are

thus

NOTE.-The Milky Way consists of the astral system to which our sun belongs.

The FIXED STARS NEBULA, (plu., nebula,) a name called because from one year to given to faint, misty appearances, another they do not sensibly change which are dimly seen among the their relative positions. stars, resembling a comet, or a speck NOTE 1.—The fixed stars may be distinguished of fog. (L., nebula, a little cloud.)— by their twinkling, whereas the planets shine Olmstead. with a steady light.

NOTE 2.-The fixed stars are at such a distance

that it requires light from 10 to 15 years, moving at the rate of 200,000 miles per second to travel from the nearest of those stars to our system.

NOTE 3.-The fixed stars shine by inherent light; they are equal in magnitude to our sun, and are supposed to be actual suns illuminating and warming other systems of planetary worlds. NOTE 4.-The number of stars visible through a good telescope has been estimated at 75 millions.

Resolvable Nebula are such as by the aid of telescopes may be resolved into stars.

NOTE. The resolvable nebulce may be regarded as appendages of our astral system.

The Irresolvable Nebula may either consist of stars that are too remote to be separated by our instruments, or they may consist of matter that is essentially nebulous or mist-like.

NOTE. The irresolvable nebula are, doubtless, in many instances, remote astral systems, resembling the Milky Way.

The GALAXY, OF MILKY WAY is that broad, luminous band which stretches across the sky every evening from horizon to horizon, and which forms a zone completely encircling the The Nebular Zone is a broad belt whole sphere almost in a great circle. When examined through powerful crossing the Milky Way nearly at telescopes, it is found to consist en- right angles, and crowded with imtirely of stars, scattered by millions mense numbers of nebulæ.

like glittering dust on the black NOTE 1.-The Nebular Zone is probably a sysground of the general heavens.-tem of astral systems, or a galaxy of galaxies, in which each individual system bears the same Brande. relation to the whole, that a single star bears to the Milky Way.

An ASTRAL SYSTEM embraces an immense number of stars, or suns, revolving around a common center.

NOTE 2.-The nebulæ are mostly telescopic objects, only one or two being visible to the

naked eye.

ASTROLOGY.

ASTROLOGY is the art of predicting events from the relative positions and supposed influences of the planets. (Gr., aσrpov [astron], a star, and yes [logos], a discourse.) NOTE.-Originally astrology was synonymous with astronomy.

The ASPECT OF THE PLANETS is their relative position.

NOTE. The astrologers reckoned five aspects,

namely, the CONJUNCTION denoted by the char-
acter ; the OPPOSITION, by 8; the TRINE, by

A; the QUADRILE, or QUARTILE, by ; and the
SEXTILE, by .

The Conjunction is the aspect of two planets that are together.

The Quadrile is the aspect of two planets that are 90 degrees apart.

The Sextile is the aspect of planets that are 60 degrees apart.

NOTE. With regard to the influences of the aspects, they are benignant, malignant, or indifferent.

The BENIGN, or propitious aspects, are the trine and the sextile.

The MALIGN, or adverse aspects, are the opposition and the quadrile. The INDIFFERENT aspect is the conjunction.

The HOUSES, in Astrology, are the twelve equal portions into which the whole heaven, visible and invisible, The Opposition is the aspect of is divided by the horizon, the meridtwo planets when 180 degrees apart. ian and four other circles at the disThe Trine is the aspect of two tances of 30 and 60 degrees from the planets that are 120 degrees apart. meridian. The first house is the

house of life; the second, of riches; the third, of brothers; the fourth, of parents; the fifth, of children; the sixth, of health; the seventh, of marriage; the eighth, of death; the ninth, of religion; the tenth, of dignities; the eleventh, of friends; and the twelfth, of enemies.

NOTE 1.-The houses have different powers, the strongest of all being the first, and the next in power the tenth; so that if two planets are

equally powerful, that will prevail which is in

the stronger house.

NOTE 2.-By the apparent revolution of the heavens a celestial body is carried through the twelve houses in twenty-four hours.

A HOROSCOPE is a representation of the aspect of the heavens, and positions of the celestial bodies at a particular moment of time, drawn according to the rules of the imaginary science of astrology.-Brande.

A NATIVITY is a horoscope representing the aspect of the heavens at the moment of a person's birth.

The ASCENDANT is the part of the heaven which is about to rise, and includes the first house.

NOTE. Each house has one of the heavenly bodies as its lord, who is stronger in his own house than in any other.

The Lord of the Ascendant is the planet which rules in the ascendant or first house.

NOTE 1.-The astrological term ascendant has passed into common language in the sense of superiority, or commanding influence, as when we say that one man has the ascendant over cendency) has the same origin. another. Ascendancy, (erroneously written as

NOTE 2.-The terms saturnine, jovial, and mer.

curial, as applied to the temperaments, are of astrological origin, and refer to the supposed influence of the planets upon the dispositions of

persons.

A Chemical Element is a simple or Oxygen, uncompounded substance.

NOTE 1.-The number of known substances regarded as elementary is 55. They may be divided into two general classes: 1st, the Metals; and 2d, the Non-Metals.

NOTE 2.-The ancients classified all substances under the titles of earth, air, fire, and water, which they called the four elements.

Table of the Simple Substances with their Equivalent or Combining Weights.

Gold,
Silver,

Iron,

Copper,

Mercury,

Lead,
Tin,
Antimony,

1. The Metals.

200 Bismuth,

110 Zinc,

28 Arsenic,

32 Cobalt,

200 Platinum,
104 Nickel,

58 Manganese,
65 Tungsten,

Chlorine,
Iodine,
Bromine,
Fluorine,
Sulphur,
Selenium,

NOTE 1.-The non-metallic elements may be divided into two families. The first family includes oxygen, chlorine, iodine, bromine, fluorine,

sulphur, and selenium. The characteristic propcommon with oxygen, they are all acidifying

erty of the elements of this family is, that, in

principles. Carbon, phosphorus, boron, silicon, nitrogen, and hydrogen, which constitute the second family, seem to possess a nature interme72 diate between that of the metals and that of the 32 oxygen family.

38 NOTE 2.--Gold, silver, iron, copper, mercury, 30 lead, and tin, are the only metals which were 96 known to the ancients.

28 Antimony was described by Basil Valentine in 281496.

100 Bismuth was described by Agricola in 1530.

Of the non-metallic elements, sulphur and carbon only were known to the ancients.

NOTE 3.-In the foregoing table, the numbers represent the proportional weights of the atoms of the different elementary substances. The atom of hydrogen is the lightest, the weight of its atom being represented by the number 1. The weight of the atom of oxygen is eight times greater than that of hydrogen, and that of sulphur is sixteen times greater.

and oxygen, consisting of one equivalent of cach, or of one part by weight of hydrogen, and eight of oxygen.

NITROGEN is thus called from its being the basis of nitric acid, and is one of the constituents of atmospheric air.

two equivalents of nitrogen and one of oxygen, NOTE.-Atmospheric or Common Air consists of or 2X14-28 parts by weight of nitrogen and 8 parts of oxygen.

CHLORINE is one of the constituents of common salt. It has its name from its color. (Gr., xawgos [chloros], green.)

NOTE.-Chlorine is remarkable for its bleach

A MIXTURE Consists of different substances whose particles are brought into contact with each other, while ing properties, and also for its property of dethere is no union between the ulti-stroying disagreeable odors. mate atoms.

IODINE is a substance obtained from A CHEMICAL COMPOUND consists of the ashes of sea weeds. It derives two or more simple substances whose its name from the color of its vapor. ultimate atoms have united. (Gr., wdns [iodes], violet-colored.)

NOTE. In the case of a mixture, the elements retain their sensible properties; while in the case of a true chemical compound, a new substance is formed, in which the sensible properties of neither of the elements can be recognized.

BROMINE is a substance found in the ashes of sea-weeds and in sea water. It is thus named from its rank odor. (Gr., &pwμos [bromos], a

CHEMICAL EQUIVALENTS are quanti-rank odor.) ties of different substances which are FLUORINE is a substance which natproportional to the numbers repre- urally exists in combination with calsenting the weight of their atoms. cium, with which it forms the minFor example, 1 grain of hydrogen, 8 eral called fluor spar.

grains of oxygen, and 16 grains of sulphur, are equivalents.

NOTE.-Substances combine, chemically, only in the ratio of their atomic weights, or in ratios

NOTE.-Combined with hydrogen, fluorine forms an acid possessing the remarkable property of corroding glass.

SULPHUR is a brittle solid of a expressed by multiples of those weights. Thus, lemon-yellow color, nearly tasteless, one equivalent of hydrogen will unite with either and inodorous, except when rubbed. one or two equivalents of oxygen; and one equivalent of nitrogen will unite with either It is found in a pure state in the vione, two, three, four, or five equivalents of oxy- cinity of volcanoes, and exists abunals, forming the sulphurets of iron, dantly in combination with the metcopper, lead, silver, etc.- Gray.

gen.

OXYGEN is a term which signifies a generator of acids. (Gr., ous [oxys], sour; and vzw [gennao], to produce.)

NOTE 1.-Oxygen forms one-fifth of the atmosphere, eight-ninths of water, and more than one-half of the solid crust of the globe.

NOTE 2.-The oxygen of the atmosphere is the supporter both of respiration and of ordinary

combustion.

CARBON is the substance of pure charcoal.

NOTE. The diamond is crystallized carbon. PHOSPHORUS is a very inflammable substance, transparent and nearly colorless, or of a wax color. It is ob

HYDROGEN is one of the constituent tained from bones, and receives its elements of water. (Gr., eva [gen- name from the property of shining in nao], to produce; and dwg [hydor], the dark. (Gr., as [phos], light, and water.) pepa [phero], to bear.)

NOTE 1.-Hydrogen, in its gaseous state, is the lightest of all known substances, being about fifteen times lighter than common air.

NOTE 2.—Water is a compound of hydrogen

without taste or smell. It derives its BORON is a dark, olive-colored solid name from the salt called borax, of

SELENIUM is an opake, brittle solid, Lead-works. 2. The art of working without taste or odor; its luster is in lead. metallic, resembling lead in the mass, but in powder has a deep red color. metals. (Gr., ova [selene], the moon.)

TIN has a color and luster resemSILVER is one of the precious met- bling silver. It is very malleable. als, and is distinguished by having ZINC is of a bluish-white color, the clearest white color of all the with a strong metallic luster, and metals. lamellated texture.

ANTIMONY is a brittle metal, of a CUPRUM, copper. (L.) Hence, white color; fuses at 810°, and, on Cupreous, resembling, or partak-cooling, has a lamellated texture. ing of the nature of copper; as, a cupreous taste.

or any fatty matter, forms soft soap. Soda,

VANADIUM, when obtained by means the soaps. Potash, in combination with an oil, of potassium, is a brittle, black sub-combined in the same manner, forms hard soap. stance; but when prepared by the LITHIUM, the base of lithia, is a decomposition of the chloride, is white-colored metal, like sodium. white, resembling silver, of a strong metallic luster.

CHROMIUM is a brittle metal, of a grayish-white color, and very infusible.

ARSENIC is a very brittle metal, of a steel-gray color, high metal luster, and of a crystalline structure.

NOTE.-Lithia is reckoned as one of the alka

lies.

BARIUM, the base of baryta, is a metal of a dark gray color, inferior in luster to cast-iron.

a

STRONTIUM, the base of strontia, is metal resembling barium in most of its properties.

lime.

NICKEL is of a white color, inter- CALCIUM is the metallic basis of mediate between tin and silver; ductile and malleable, and attracted by the magnet.

COBALT is a brittle solid, of a reddish gray color, and weak metallic luster.

CADMIUM resembles tin in its color and luster, but is harder and more tenacious; very ductile and malleable.

MANGANESE is a hard, brittle metal, of a grayish-white color, and granular texture; very infusible.

ZIRCONIUM exists in the form of a black powder.

THORIUM is of a deep, leaden-gray color.

GLUCINIUM presents the form of a white powder, without taste or odor. ALUMINIUM is the metallic base of common clay.

POTASSIUM is the metallic base of potash. It is a soft, malleable solid, yielding to the pressure of the fingers like wax; of a decidedly metallic luster, similar to mercury in color. NOTE.-Potash is obtained from the ashes of wood, by causing water to pass through the ashes, and then evaporating the ley, as it is

called, to dryness.

MAGNESIUM is the metallic base of magnesia. It is a very malleable solid, of a white color, like silver, and of a brilliant metallic luster.

NOTE.-Baria, strontia, lime and magnesia, resemble potash and soda in their properties, earths. and have, therefore, been called the alkaline

ACKNOWLEDGMENT.-The author is indebted to Gray's Chemistry for the foregoing descriptions of the metals.

Of Chemical Compounds.
1. Alloys.

An ALLOY, in coinage, is a baser metal mixed with a finer.

An Alloy, in chemistry, is any mixture of different metals.

Alloy, in a figurative sense, is evil mixed with good; as, no happiness is without alloy.

BRASS is an alloy of copper and zinc.

BELL-METAL is a mixture of copper and tin, with a small portion of brass or zinc.

PINCHBECK is an alloy of copper and zinc, resembling gold in its appearance. The proportion of zinc is greater than in brass.- Ure.

PEWTER is a composition consisting mainly of tin and lead. The best pewter consists of tin alloyed with small quantities of antimony, copper,

SODIUM is the metallic base of soda. It is a white, opake solid, of metallic luster, resembling silver. NOTE 1.-Soda may be obtained by lixiviating the ashes of sea plants, and then evaporating the and bismuth. lirivium, or ley.

alkalies.

NOTE 2.-Potash and soda are called the BRONZE is a compound consisting of copper and tin, to which other metals are sometimes added. It is used for statues, bells, and cannon.

NOTE 3.-The alkalies are employed in the manufacture of glass, the one or the other being used according to the kind of glass that is to be produced. The principal element of glass beside the alkalies is silex, used in the form of gand.

NOTE 4.-The alkalies also form the basis of

An AMALGAM is a compound of quicksilver with any other metal. To Amalgamate is, 1. To compound