SKETCHES FOR YOUNG THINKERS. Continued from page 36. Unwilling to multiply illustrations beyond the bounds of propriety, we leave the age of martyrdom, and now present a few more from other sources. @ufficient amount of nitre to produce this result:-if we had, I that there was scarcely a language in which he had not attained the carbon would have been entirely removed; the resulting a considerable proficiency. He was perfect in Greek and Latin product would have been altogether white, and we should he understood the Hebrew, Arabic, and Persian, Egyptian, Chihave had a preparation, sometimes made and employed by the nese, &c., and he was well acquainted with all the European chemists, under the name of white flux. languages." Here, then, is intellectual excellence. Europe rung with his praises. We will turn, and converse with this literary Titan, when he had nearly run his race, and "drunk every cup of fame." When his friends were gathered around him, he exclaimed, with penitential earnestness:-"Oh! I have lost an immense portion of time-time, that most precious thing in the world! Had I but one year more, it should be spent in studying David's psalms and Paul's epistles. Oh! sirs, mina the world less, and God more: The fear of the Lord, that is wisdom; and to There is something depart from evil, that is understanding.' remarkable in this confession. Here was a man or vast and multifarious learning; one who had sat and heard the Grecian sages philosophise, and her poets strike the lyre and wake the praises of a world; a man who had made himself acquainted with all knowledge, and for whose society emperors and nobles contended, coming down with the simplicity of a child, and wishing for another year, that he might read David's psalms and Paul's epistles! There was a sound in that Hebrew lyre, which no other instrument could produce; and a power in the writings of the Jewish convert, which made all other literature shrivel into insignificance! The evening of life, and an approaching eternity, are the best teachers of serious truths. Men look at things then in their proper light. All parade and gutter are taken away, and things are left in their naked and unadorned reality. We would, that the testimony of Salmasius were engraved on every heart, anı contemplated by every understanding. Louis IX., King of France (in the year 1226), holds a conspicuous place in the annals of history, as a wise and virtuous monarch. From all that we gather, he combined both intellectual and moral excellence in himself. We are told, that his reputation for uprightness, penetration and candour, was so great, reputation for uprightness, penetration and candour, was so great, that all the English barons, and even Henry III., consented to make him umpire of the differences which subsisted between them." Fenelon, as quoted by Murray, has given this king a most excellent character. He says:" He was distinguished by the nobleness of his sentiments; he was without haughtiness, presumption, or severity. In every respect, he attended to the real interests of his country, of which he was as truly the father as the king.' His farewell words to his son Philip, are highly devout and affecting:-" God grant you grace, my son, to do his will continually; so that he may be glorified by your means, and that we may be with him after this life, and praise him eternally." The following letter to his daughter Isabella, queen of Navarre, we have much pleasure in quoting :-"My dear daughter, I conjure you to love our Lord with all your might; for this is the foundation of all goodness. No one is so worthy to be loved. Well may we say,Lord, thou art our God, and our goods are nothing to thee.' It was the Lord who sent his Son upon earth, and delivered him over to death for our salvation. If you love him, my daughter, the advantage will be yours; and be assured that you can never love and serve him too much. He has well deserved that we should love him; for he first loved us. I wish you could comprehend what the Son of God has done for our redemption. My daughter, be very desirous to know how you may best please the Lord: and bestow all your care to avoid everything that may displease him. But, particularly, never be guilty of any deliberate sin, though it were to save your life. Take pleasure in hearing God reverently spoken of, both in sermons and in private conversation. Shun too familiar discourse, except with very virtuous persons. Obey, my daughter, your husband, your father and your mother in the Lord: you are bound to do so both for their sakes and the sake of him who has commanded it. In what is contrary to the glory of God, you owe obedience to none. Endeavour, my daughter, to be an example of goodness to all who may see, and to all who may hear of you. Be not too nice about dress: if you have too many clothes, give them away in charity. Beware, also, of having an excessive care of your furniture. Aspire after a disposition to do the will of God purely for his sake, independently of the hope of reward, or the fear of punishment.” What a noble letter from a king to a daughter! It comprehends the loftiest, and the most minute duties of life; if the principles contained in this admirable epistle were fully wrought out, the world would be transformed at once. Here, then, we have an example quite to the point. On the one hand, we have kings and barons asking his counsel, so great was his wisdom; and on the other, we hear him pouring out the most pious exhortations to his children. What a combination of wisdom and goodness! The wisdom gives a dignity and effect to the goodness, and the goodness renders the wisdom more exalted and attractive. France has not been altogether destitute of good men, although its history is one of the most lamentable in the world. French fickleness, caprice, and restlessness are known throughout civilized society. One example has, however, been given of a wise and virtuous prince; we have another instance, of a somewhat different character, but quite in keeping with the subject. It shows the truth of our opening sentence, that goodness is better than greatness. We refer to Salmasius, who is well known to have been one of the most extraordinary men of his own or any subsequent age. A modern writer, speaking of this man, says: He was knowing in almost everything; in school divinity, in law, in philosophy, in criticism; and he was so consummate a linguist Another case, illustrative of the same point, is that of Cæsar Borgia, son of Pope Alexander VI. D'Aubigne, speaking of him, says:- Cæsar was the handsomest and strongest man or his age, Six wild bulls fell easily beneath his blows, in single combat. Every morning, some new victim was found, which had beeu_assassinated during the night, in the Roman streets. Cæsar Burgla was the hero of crime." Testing him by the same standard as that of Salmasius, viz., the death-bed, we have the following expressive confession :-"I had provided, in the course of my life, for everything except death; and now, alas! I am to die, althougn entirely unprepared.' This man was a secularist. His whole attention was confined to this world;-to his excesses there was no end; whatever he wished, he obtained; and after a must extraordinary career, he left the foregoing confession, as a volcs from the death-bed to succeeding generations. Again recurring to France, we are filled with amazement at the prodigious literary acquisitions of Pascal. If ever there was a great man on earth, Blaise Pascal was the man. In him, mental and moral excellence may almost be said to have reached their consummation. Bayle has paid him the following lofty tribute :"A hundred volumes of religious discourses are not of so much avail, to confound the impious, as a simple account of the life of Pascal. His humility and his devotion mortify the libertines more than if they were attacked by a dezen missionaries. They can no longer assert that piety is confined to men of little minds, when they behold the highest degree of it in a geometrician of the first rank, the most acute metaphysician, and one of the most penetrating minds that ever existed." Notwithstanding his brilliant talents, and all but unrivalled learning, he was as meek and gentle as a little child. His case might have been appropriately quoted in the former chapter, as a proof that intellectual excellence does not minister to vanity and pedantry. Such men are living commentaries on the word of God. They confound the gainsayer by their learning; the dissolute by their purity; and the hypocrite by their manifest sincerity. Such men are more noble than kings; they shed a radiance upon the world, and by their "walk and conversation" recommend the practice of justice, truth, and virtue. We have by no means presented all the illustrations which French biography supplies, of the truth and importance of the subject, no reference has been made to Benezet, Moulin, Renti, or Richelieu; but the youthful reader will add to his knowledge of men and things, by reading such memoirs of these men as he may be able to procure. Thus we leave France, thankful that amidst all its bloodshed, revolutionising, and mutability, there are registered in its archives the names of many who have contributed largely to our best literature, who have added lustre to humanity, and have not been ashamed to add the graces of piety to the laurels of learning. In our two preceding Lessons, we have laid down a set of Transactions for the student to Ill. We now proceed to show the manner of making these entries, according to the date enter in the subsidiary Books, according to the rules given in our former Lessons in Vol. of each transaction: viz. 1st. All Receipts and Payments of Cash are to be entered in the CASH-BOOK, in the pro- 2nd. All Drafts or Remittances in Bills must be entered in the BILLS RECEIVABLE DR. CASH Book, according to the directions placed at the top of each column, the persons from whom 3rd. All Acceptances of Bills must be entered in the BILLS PAYABLE BOOK, according 4th. All other transactions (that is, exclusive of Cash and Bils) are to be entered The following is the form of the CASI B OK which we recommend, with the entries of BOOK. CASH ACCOUNT. CR. (1) To London and Westminster Bank. Feby. 1 To Balance of Cash 195 0 0 Feby. 1 | By Balance of Deposits £100 0 0 £1200] 0 £12535 0 C 2195 8 6 £2535 0 | 0 ||2195 8 | 0 1200 0 0 By Thomas Watson, lent £100 By London and Westminster Bank By Darling and Co., lent By East India Company paid a Deposit By Petty Cash Account By Balance of Cash 135 18 10 9 0 £1735 0 0 1907 7 ལ 4 May 1 To Balance of Cash 3 To London and Westminster Bank 340 745 7 9 May 1 By Balance of Deposits 0 3 By Bills Payable, No. 2, Andrews and Co. By Petty Cash Account ... By London and Westminster Bank 210 0 0 15 29 To Bills Receivable, No. 7, Welch and Co. To Balance of Deposits 695 0 By London and Westminster Bank By Palance of Cash ... To Bills Receivable, No. 6, Abrahams and Co 113 1 200 0 200 0 10 2001 0 0 12 37 10 0 15 15 37 0 8 41 5 2 100 0 21 2 26 30 2413] 13 0 BILL BOOK. The following is the form of the BILL BOOK, which we have adopted, in order to give | but what we have given will be found sufficient for the learner at the outset, as more would our students the simplest possible idea of the nature of such a book in business. The first tend only to confuse his mind, without imparting any real benefit. This book also includes A greater number of columus are frequently introduced into both books for the conpart co sists of the Bills Roccirable Book, and the second part of the Bills Payable Book, the entries of all the Bill Transactions from January till June, as laid down in the Memoranda of Transactions given in the two preceding lessons. venkuce of the merchant, and the accuracy which is required in many Bill transactions; (1) April 13 67 Drawn upon. Allison and Co. Warwick and Co. Thiselton and Co. Abrahams and Co. Welch and Co. : BILLS PAYABLE BOOK. No. 123 Their Order Their Order Smith and Co. (1) Payable to LESSONS IN ITALIAN GRAMMAR.-No. X. BY CHARLES TAUSENAU, M.D., Of the University of Pavia, and Professor of the Italian and German I CANNOT begin my exposition of the grammar of the The apostrophe is essentially different from accent, and indicates that the word on which it is placed has been deprived of a vowel or of a syllable. Where, therefore, for the sake of harmony, at the beginning or end of a word, a vowel is omitted because the preceding word terminates with a vowel or the subsequent word begins with one, the apostrophe must be placed. It can never be used in the middle, and all omissions and contractions in the middle of words must be written without this sign. For example: l'amore (pronounced lah-mó-rai), love (for lo amore); dell'anima (del-láh-nee-mah), of the soul (for della anima); dall'uomo (dahl-looô-mo), from man (for dallo uomo); capo d'opera (káh-po dô-pai-rah), a masterpiece, an odd man (for capo di opera); s'io posso (sée-opôs-so), if I can (for se io posso); pens'io (pen-sée-o), I think (for penso io); sopra'l letto (só-prahllêt-to), upon the bed (for sopra il letto); sotto 'l cielo (sót-toltchê-lo), under the sky (for sotto il cielo); e'n questo, e'n quello (en qwai-sto, en qwél-lo), as well in the latter as the former (for e in questo, e in quello); tra 'l sì e'l no (trahl see el nô), beween yes and no, i.e., hesitating (for tra il sì e il no). I may here remark, that the use of the apostrophe at the beginning of a word is more frequent in poetry than in prose. It is necessary to bear in mind the distinction between the apostrophe as a sign of elision, and the abbreviation of words where letters are omitted without the use of this sign. I consider it necessary to state some elementary rules with respect to the abbreviation of words. 1. The final vowel of any Italian word may be, and always without the use of the apostrophe, omitted, if it is immediately preceded by one of these four consonants l, m, n, and r, the so-called liquid consonants or liquids, and if, at the same time, the subsequent word should commence with a consonant, except the s impure, as the Italians call it; that is, s followed by another consonant; as, spirito, spirit; scettro, sceptre. For example: il carneval passato (il kahrr-nai-váhĺ pahs-sáh-to), the last carnival (for il carnevale passato); a man destra (ah mahn dê-strah), on the right hand (for a mano destra); ogni uom tacea (ón-nyee ooôm tah-tchái-ah), every one was silent (for ogni uomo tacea); vuol far questo (vooôl fahr kwai-stol, he wants to do this (for vuole fare questo). 2. In words ending with llo, and having the accent of tone on the syllable preceding lo, it is customary to omit the whole of the syllable lo, if the subsequent word begins with a consonant which is not the s impure. For example: bêl for bêllo, beautiful; quel for quello, that, the former; val for valle, valley; cavál for cavallo, horse; uccêl for uccello, bird; fratel for fratello, brother; tranquil for tranquillo, tranquil; cervêl for cervello, brains; ruscêl for ruscello, brook, &c. 3. The abbreviations or omissions of the final vowels mentioned in the two preceding rules can never take place in that part of a sentence which requires a pause, i.e., before a comma, olon, or period. It is, therefore, not allowable to say Ella ha una bella man, she has a fine hand, but mano; not chi è quel Signor? who is that gentleman? but Signore, &c. Other important rules with respect to abbreviation I shall state and comment upon as examples occur in the course of the grammar, and I shall now content myself with this concluding remark, that all abbreviations in the Italian language, whether made with or without the apostrophe, are made merely for the sake of harmony and to avoid hiatus, i.e., a prolonged opening of the mouth by the recurrence of vowels. But as perspicuity is of greater importance than harmony, this general rule may be safely laid down, that abbreviations should Some I now enter on the grammar proper, of the Italian language. In fulfilment of my promise to follow the natural method to teach, as it were, the language as it is formed in the mind, I shall first speak of nouns, and other kinds of words allied to nouns, and then proceed_to_explain the verbs and their various inflexions. Two methods are open to choice, each of which has its zealous advocates in tuition. would confine themselves strictly to theory in grammatical teaching; others as exclusively to practice in the earlier stages of the instruction. If we adhere strictly to theoretical exposition, the progress of the pupil is sure, but slow; if we are merely pracIshall endeavour to blend the two, and while I, as concisely as tical, the pace may be rapid, but the attainments are superficial. I can, explain all the principles and rules of the language, I shall constantly strive to impress them on the minds of my pupil readers by practical exercises on each rule as it occurs. modern invention of Germany, the country, perhaps, most I shall, in this part of my labour, endeavour to improve on a distinguished for scientific method in education. It should be the aim of every educator so to teach, that his pupils may regard the instruction as relating to a living language to be acquired by the tongue, and not merely as dead writing to be comprehended only by the head. From the very outset of these grammatical lessons my pupils will learn to form sentences, so that as the head acquires knowledge of its principles, the tongue will grow familiar in the practice of the language. In thus uniting practice with theory, I shall, of course, be obliged in one class of the exercises to anticipate the systematic exposition of principles, but I shall only do so with strict regard to the progressive knowledge of the student, and I shall specially adapt the exercises to that end, and perhaps thereby succeed mina. The pupil must bear in mind that he is now about in more firmly impressing even the rules anticipated, on the to learn to speak as well as to read the language of Italy. With regard to the selection of exercises, I shall not scruple, |