er inverted cone. The stem is marked like the former with a point of level, to indicate the immersion of the instrument to the same constant depth. It is also bailasted at the lower end by a glass bulb filled with mercury.

Fig. 38.

Liquids.
Madeira wine

Port wine

Bordeaux wine

Distilled water at 39° F. or the

In performing experiments with this areometer, its weight must be carefully ascertained; it is then made to float in a vessel full of water, and weights are put into the upper scale or cup, until the fixed mark on the stem reaches the level of the water. In this state, the weight of the areometer, added to the weights in the cup, represents the weight of a volume of water equal to that of the part of the apparatus immersed, according to the first condition of the equilibrium of floating bodies formerly mentioned. Now, having determined in the same manner the weight of an equal volume of the given liquid, we have only to divide this weight by the former, and we obtain the specific weight required.

The specific weight of a liquid may be determined, thirdly, by means of a glass bottle such as we described in finding the specific weight of a solid in powder. This bottle is first weighed when empty, then when full of water, and lastly, when full of the given liquid. If we now subtract the weight of the bottle from its weight when respectively full of water and of the given liquid, we have under equal volume the weight of water and of the given liquid whence we can deduce, as before, the specific weight required.

Temperature when Specific Weights are determined. As the volume of bodies increases with their temperature, and as this increase varies in different bodies, it is plain that the specific weight of any substance is not strictly the same at different temperatures. Hence the necessity of selecting a constant or fixed temperature for the determination of specific weights. | The temperature selected for water is 39° Fahrenheit, or according to Stampfer 38°.75, because this is the temperature at which it is found to have its maximum or greatest density. The general temperature selected both for solids and liquids, is that of 32° Fahrenheit, or, the temperature of freezing

Specific Weights.

1.038

0.997

0.994

maximum density

or the }

1.000

Distilled water at 32° F.

0.999

Use of the Tables of Specific Weights. — The tables of the specific weights or specific gravities of bodies, are capable of numerous and useful applications. In mineralogy, they furnish a distinctive character by which different kinds of minerals may be recognised according to their density. In chemistry, their use is indispensable, as will be seen in the lessons in that science. In the practical arts, they also serve two very important purposes; 1st, to determine the weight of a body whose volume is known; and 2nd, to determine the volume when the weight is known.

It has been long known that the weight of a cubic foot of water, that is, the weight of a volume of water contained in a hollow cube whose length, breadth and thickness are each one foot, is very nearly 1000 ounces Avoirdupois, when taken at the maximum density; the difference being such, that according to the experiments made by order of the Legislature, this weight is exactly 999-2777 ounces Avoirdupois. Supposounces, we have at once a relation between the volume of the ing now that this weight is for all practical purposes 1000 cubic foot of water and its weight, which will solve the two problems just mentioned in a very easy manner. For, if in the preceding tables of the specific weights of bodies, we multiply each number by 1,000, that is, if we remove the decimal point altogether, we have then very nearly the number of ounces which a cubic foot of each body will weigh. For example, a cubic foot of bar iron will on this principle weigh 7,788 ounces Avoirdupois, or 4 cwts. 1 qr. 10 lbs. 12ozs.; and 2,000 cubic inches of the same substance will weigh 5 cwta. 3 lbs. 5 ozs. nearly; for, a cubic foot being 1,728 cubic inches, we have 1,728: 2,000 :: 7,788 : 9,013 nearly; and 9,013 ounces Avoirdupois are equivalent to the weight just stated. In like manner, on the same principle, 6 cwts. 3 qrs, of a bar of iron are equal in volume to 2,683 cubic inches of that material, or to 1 cubic foot and 955 cubic inches; for, 6 cwts. 3 qrs. 12,096 ounces; and 7,788: 12,096 :: 1,728: 2,683 cubic inches.

Generally, if we represent the number of cubic feet in the volume of a body by V, the specific weight in chiliads (thousands) of ounces Avoirdupois by D, and the relative weight of a body by P, we shall have PV D; that is, according to this notation, the relative weight of a body is equal to the product of its volume by its specific weight. Conversely, since from P the preceding equation we have V ; we shall, therefore, have this rule, that the volume of a body is equal to the quotient of its relative weight divided by its specific weight.

D

As an application of the formula PV D, we may here show how to calculate the interior diameter of a capillary tube. First, introduce into the tube a column of mercury, ascertaining with accuracy its length and its weight. Next, supposing the column of mercury to be cylindrical, we have, according to the rule for finding the solid content of a cylinder, Vul, where is the radius of the circular section of the cylinder, lits length, and 31416. Substituting this value of Vin the equation P=ID, we have PlD; whence r= P TID metallic wire may be calculated.

1 063

1.558

1.300
1.200

1.030

1.026

LESSONS IN ITALIAN GRAMMAR.-No. XI.
By CHARLES TAUSENAU, M.D.,

Of the University of Pavia, and Professor of the German and Italian
Languages at the Kensington Proprietary Grammar School.

There are three articles in the Italian language, il and to for the masculine, and la for the feminine gender, equivalent to the English definite article the.

The article il can only be used before those masculine words which begin with a consonant, excepting always s impure; i.e., s followed by a consonant. The plural is i. For example:

The article lo, without the apostrophe, can only be used before those masculine words which begin with the s impure; i.e., an s followed by another consonant. The plural of lo is gli.* For example:

Many grammarians of great authority have even emphatically proscrived the use of per il in the place of per lo. As, however, cultivated persons and the best writers have never ceased occasionally to use the combination per il, its correctness and allowableness will at once be admitted, for the usage of a languageis a safer guide than the caprice of grammarians.

le á-ni-me, the souls; le in-sé-gne, the banners, signs; le 8-pere, the works; le u-sán-ze, the usages.

+

It is obvious that the six words above mentioned, constituting the three articles in the singular and plurai, il, lo, la, i, gli, and le, must frequently meet monosyllables, and therefore occasion dissonance. As harmony is a marked characteristic of the language, some means must be found to correct this. This is effected by contractions, in which letters are changed, omitted or added according to laws dictated by the conveniences of referred to are di, of; a, to; da, from, by; con, with; per, for pronunciation, by custom, and by harmony. The monosyllables through; 82, upon; and the important contractions (to be committed to memory) to which they are subject, when in combination with the articles il, lo, la, i, gli, and le, are the following: Instead of di il di i di lo

دو

di ľ

write dél
déi*
dél-lo
déll'

Instead of in i
in lo
in l'

write néï§.

· nél-lo néll'

in gli

di gli

né gli

nél-la

di la

"

The reader will remark that I have placed no apostrophe per gli after gl, the plural of lo, before an-ge-li, while I have used the The reader will remark that I only give three contractions apostrophe on gl' before im-piê-ghi. The reason of this is, of the word per. For this reason, that per, generally speaking, that the plural gli only requires the apostrophe before words is not contracted with an article commencing with the letter commencing with the vowel i, and never before words com-, and in such cases it is customary to place per and such an mencing with the vowels a, e, o, and u; which is clearly a necessary usage to maintain the squeezed sound of the word gli (llyee) in these cases. For, otherwise, gl'án-ge-li would be pronounced, according to the rules explained in the fifth pronouncing table, gláhn-jai-lee. Even Italians themselves are occasionally liable to commit the fault of placing the apostrophe on the gl' before a, e, o, and u; but the difference caused in the pronunciation manifestly shows the grossness of this

The reader will have observed that I have not place an apostrophe on the le before the plural a-ni-me, while the le has the apostrophe before the plural êr-be. The reason is, that it is a common usage to place the apostrophe on the plural le before words of the feminine gender commencing with the vowel e. For example:

L'es-pe-riên-ze, the experiences; l'e-re-si-e, the heresies. But before feminine words commencing with the other vowels, the le is not commonly used with an apostrophe. For example:

* The only exception to this rule is the very frequent use of the article lo after the preposition per, for, through, before words not beginning with the s impure; as, for example, per lo món-do, for the world; per lo giar-dí-no, for or through the garden; per lo pas-sd-to, for the past.

With regard to the word con, with, it may be remarked, that when it comes in connexion with an article commencing with 7, it is optional to contract it; it being equally correct to say con lo' or col-lo scét-tro, with the sceptre; cel or con l'in-gánno, with the deceit; con la or cól-la si-gno-ra, with the lady; con le or cól-le brác-cia,¶ with the arms.

Two important prepositions, &a and fra, between and under, can likewise be contracted with the article, but in a special way, and with modifications which must be stated separately. If tra and fra are to be contracted with an article commencing with 4, the letter must be doubled, l; as, for example, frál-le mon-tá-gne, between the mountains; trál-le dú-e so-rêl

*It is useful, with regard to pronunciation and orthography, to bear in mind the difference between these three words: dei, of the (pl ), Dê-i, Gods (the plural of Di-o), and De-i, Dey (of the Barbary States).

mind the difference between di, to the (pl.), and á-j, tutors,
It is, for the reasons stated in the previous note, userul to
Mind the difference between dái, from or by the (pl.), and
dát, thou givest.

moles (upon the body), patches (ou the face).
§ Mind, also, the difference between nét, in the (pl.), and ne-i,

The letter s in this word, although placed between two vowls, has the sharp, hissing sound, as well as in the words co-sa, thing, and co-sì, thus, before commented on.

syllables as they are divided in Italian spelling, I must emnot followed by h) as though the first c was a (the Englishphatically warn the reader not to read the combin tion cc (when man would naturally do so), but to read the whole combina tion as though it was ttch, gliding with great rapidity from one syilable to the other. I must refer, on this point, to my remarks and tables on pronunciation

¶ Once for all, being obliged for the greatest part to divide the

Nominative:
Genitive:
Dative:
Accusative :

The words tra and fra are never contracted with the article | Ablative: gli. For example: fra gli a-mi-ci, between the friends; tra gl' in-fe-li-ci, between the unfortunate.

When fra or tra stands before il, the letter i of the article is commonly not heard in pronunciation and in writing, the apostrophe is used in its place. For example: fra 'l són-no, during the sleep; tra 'l si e'l nô, between yes and no, hesitating.

Nominative:
Genitive:

The so-called indefinite article uno, masculine, and una, Dative: feminine, will be hereafter explained.

Accusative:
Ablative:

In Italian, as in English, the nouns have no terminational alteration in either number; that is to say, all cases are alike. Strictly speaking, therefore, they cannot be said to have any declensions. All changes in Italian nouns denote only a difference in gender or in number. For example: pásse-ro, sparrow, not only denotes the object sparrow, but also that it is a male; and pás-se-re (female) sparrows, not only denctes the feminine but the plurality of number. The article Nominative: in Italian, as in French, Spanish, and English, does not in Genitive : itself denote the case, but is a word that distinguishes one Dative: noun as a determined object from another noun of the same Accusative : class. It is on this account a fixed principle of the language | Ablative : never to place the article before a noun, when the latter is used in its general and indeterminate signification. The articles il, lo, and la, are in themselves as indeclinable as the noun itself. They only change according to the gender and number of the noun; and when the Italians desire to denote cases, they must, on this account, like the English, place before the articles certain words, which are the substitutes of Nominative: those inflexions by which, in the Greek, Latin, and German languages, the cases are expressed. The English have only two such signs of cases; the words of and to. The Italians have three; di, for the second case, or genitive; a, for the third case, or dative; and da, for the sixth case, or ablative. These three words, di, a, and da, are used in the singular as well as in the plural, before masculine nouns as well as feminine. In the first case, or nominative, and in the fourth case, or accusative, the Italian noun has, as well as the English, no case sign before it, and both these cases are sufficiently distinguishable by the place which they take before or after the verb, for which reason they require no special distinguishing mark. For example:

A-les-sán-dro vín-se Dá-rio, Alexander conquered Darius; Car-lo per-cuó-te il cá-ne, Charles strikes the dog; il prín-ci-pe ất ma tu các cửa, the prince likes the chase; Piê-tro lêg-get le gaz-zét-te, Peter reads the newspapers.

I shall now subjoin two tables illustrating the declensions of Italian nouns: I. with and without an article; and, II. with some important words frequently preceding them. These tables are so important that they must be committed to memory. But let me first remark, that it will be sufficient for our present purpose to lay down this fundamental rule with regard to the formation of the plural of Italian nouns :

All Italian nouns, masculine and feminine, change their final rowel into I in the plural; as, il pá-dre, the father; i pá-dri, the fathers; il po-ê-ta, the poet; i po-ê-ti, the poets; il cêr-vo, the stag; i cêr-vi, the stags; la má-dre, the mother; le má-dri, the mothers; la má-no, the hand; le má-ni, the hands.

The most important exceptions from this rule are feminine nouns terminating in A, which form their plural by changing a into E; as, la so-rêl-la, the sister; le so-rêl-le, the sisters.

* I must once for all, and emphatically, warn the reader, because I am obliged, in the case of the double g (gg), to place the first g in one syllable, and the second g in the next, not to read when the gg is not followed by h) the first g like g in the English word get, to which mistake many readers will be naturally liable but I must refer with regard to the pronunciation of the g (97) to the lessons on pronunciation.

:

Genitive:
Dative:
Accusative :
Ablative:

Nominative:
Genitive :

Dative:
Accusative:
Ablative:

* Instead of the plurals i, dei, ai, dai, some old writers used the
plurals li, delli, alli, dalli; but this is no longer usual.
with the apostrophe for the sake of harmony, thus: de', a', da', ne'
The plurals dei, ai, dai, nei, coi, pei, sui, are frequently marked
co', pe', su', especially when coming before several words all of
which terminate in i. For example: a ca-gió-ne de' mól-ti suo-i pec-
cá-ti, on account of his many sins.

Harmony, which has had so much influence on the formation
and pronunciation of Italian words, requires that to the case-sign
a, when it comes before a vowel, frequently the letter d is added;
as, ad o-no-re, to honour; ad a-mi-co, to the friend; for a onore and
a amico.

The laws of harmony, likewise, frequently require the mark of the apostrophe on the case-sign di, when it comes before words commencing with a vowel; as, cá-po d' ô-pe-ra, masterpiece; sé-gno d'u-mil-tà, sign of humility.

The case-sign da, on the other hand, is never marked with the apostrophe, but always written in full, in order to avoid the inevitable ambiguity of confounding the case-sign di with it whenever it is marked with the apostrophe, and the dissonance of two vowels in this case coming together must be tolerated; because, as I have already remarked, perspicuity is a more urgent law than harmony in these contractions.

1

the houses
of the houses
to the houses
the houses
from the houses
in the houses
with the houses
for the houses
on the houses

the art
of the art
to the art
the art
from the art
in the art
with the art
for the art
on the art

Nominative:

ár-te

ľ'ár-te

Genitive:

di ár-te

• dell' ár-te

Dative :

ad

ár-te

all' ár-te

Accusative:

ár-te

ľ' ár-te

Ablative :

da

ár-te

dall' ár-te

in

of London

the arts
of the arts
to the arts
the arts
from the arts
in the arts
with the arts
for the arts
on the arts

London*

from London
in London
with London
for London

Albert
of Albert
to Albert
Albert
from Albert
in Albert
with Albert
for Albert

KEY TO THE LESSONS IN GREEK.
BY JOHN R. BEARD, D.D.

Vol. III., p. 227-GREEK-ENGLISH,

Always be true. Rejoice ye (xatow, I rejoice). Follow. Do not complain. I live pleasantly. I am well educated. Thou writestbeautifully. If thou writest ill, thou art blamed. He hastens. He fights bravely. If you flatter, you are not true. If thou flatterest, thou art not believed. We flee. If we flee, You flee badly (like cowards). If you we are pursued. flatter, you are blamed. If you fight bravely, you are admired. If they flatter, they are not true. It is not well to flee. It is well to fight bravely. If thou art pursued, do not flee. Fight bravely. If they flatter, they are blamed. If thou speakest the truth, thou art believed. Always excel. Eat and drink, and play, moderately.

Vol. III., p. 308.-GREEK-ENGLISH.

Yield not to force. The lyre dissipates cares. Friendship promises refuge and aid. Care corrodes the heart. Worship (cultivate) the Muses. Do not believe false accusations. Justice often yields to injustice. We are often worn down by hard (severe) poverty. Flee from (avoid) talkativeness. Wickedness brings grief. Luxury begets injustice and avarice. Avoid luxury as a shame (or a bane). True friendship arises through (from) virtue and intercourse.