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An Ideal Section of the Stratified Rocks,

in their vertical order of position.

A. Alluvial Soil.

B. Erratic Blocks, and Till.
c. The Pleistocene.

D. The Pleiocene.

E. The Meiocene.

F. The Eocene.

G. The Chalk Formation.

H. The Quadersandstein.

I. The Neocomien.

J. The Wealden.

K. The Oolite.

L. The Lias.

M. The Keuper.

N. The Muschelkalk.

o. The Buntersandstein.
r. The Zechstein.

The Areometer of Baumé.-This areometer, which was invented by M. Baumé, of Paris, is one of those having a constant weight, and is very extensively used. It consists of a glass bulb full of air having a graduated stem, with a smaller bulb below it full of mercury to ballast the apparatus when floating in a liquid, fig. 39. This instrument is differently graduated

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according as it is intended for liquids denser than water, or for
liquids lighter than water. In the former case the weight is
so regulated that in distilled water, at the maximum density, it
sinks nearly to the upper extremity of the stem, and is in
equilibrium at a point marked zero. In order to graduate the
stem, fill a vessel with a solution consisting of 85 parts of
water by weight, and 15 parts of sea salt. This solution being
denser than pure water, the instrument will sink in it only as
far as the point B, which is then marked 15. Next, dividing
the interval between the points A and B into fifteen equal
parts, and continuing the divisions to the bottom of the stem,
the instrument is graduated. The divisions are marked on a
small slip of paper placed in the interior of the glass stem.
The areometer thus constructed can be employed only for
T. The Devonian, or Old liquids denser than water, such as acids and saline solutions,

Q. New Red Sandstone, or
Rothliegendes

R. The Coal Measures.

s. The Mountain Limestone.

Red Sandstone.

U. The Silurian.

v. The Cambrian.

ON PHYSICS OR NATURAL PHILOSOPHY.

No. XII.

being both an acid-test and a salt-test. For liquids not so
dense as water, the zero being placed at the bottom of the rod,
the graduation is reversed. Baumé determined the zero point
of the instrument by its immersion in a solution of 90 parts of
water by weight with 10 parts of sea-salt, the point marked
10 on the scale being that which indicated its depth in distilled
water. Dividing then the interval between these two points
into 10 equal parts, and continuing the divisions to the top of
the stem, the instrument is graduated, and becomes a liquor-
test.

These areometers being graduated in a manner entirely arbitrary, indicate neither the densities of the liquids, nor the quantities of salt held in solution. Yet they are usefully employed in ascertaining when a saline or acid solution has been brought to a point of fixed concentration, or a certain degree of strength. The graduation of these instruments assists much in the rapid formation of mixtures and solutions in given proportions, not with very great precision, but with a sufficient approximation in a great number of practical cases. For example, in the manufacture of common syrups, it has AREOMETERS OF VARIABLE VOLUME. been found that the salt-test of Baumé should stand at the Different kinds of Areometers.-The areometers of Nicholson mark 35 on the scale as the point of level, in a syrup of and Fahrenheit, described in our last lesson, may be defined as proper strength when cool. Thus the manufacturer is furthose which have a constant volume and a variable weight, because nished with an instrument with which he can readily test they are always immersed to the same depth in the liquid, the degree of concentration in his syrups. In like manner, in and weights are placed on their scale or cup, according to the sea-water at the temperature of 82° F., the hydrometer of weight of the solid or the liquid whose specific weight is to be Baumé stands at the mark 3 on the scale, indicating that the determined. Areometers are also constructed having a constructed having a water is of that degree of strength proper for saline baths rariable volume and a constant weight; that is, having no fixed ordered to patients in certain diseases. The solutions of seapoint of immersion level on the stem, and preserving always salt and water, which physicians prescribe, are in general the same weight. These apparatus, known under the names much weaker than that indicated by the proper degree on the of hydrometers, scale-areometers, or liquor-tests, are not instrument; that is, the artificial saline baths have not that intended to ascertain the specific weights of liquids, but to degree of saltness which the natural sea-water has, and are not determine the strength of saline solutions, acids, and alcohols. I therefore sufficiently efficacious in producing a cure.

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The alcohol-test or measure, invented by M. Gay-Lussac, is | If, therefore, we represent the volume by 100, the volume exactly similar in form to the areometer of Baumé; it differs will be 75. We then mark respectively at the points ▲ and B only in the mode of graduation, this being such that the the numbers 100 and 75. The volume of A B being, according instrument indicates not only the strength of an alcoholic to the value of v', the fourth part of v, we divide the space a B mixture, but it also shows how much per cent. it contains of into 25 equal parts, and each of these parts is of AB or 106 water, and how much per cent. of absolute alcohol, that is, of of v, that is, of the volume immersed in pure water. We next alcohol at its maximum strength. It is graduated in the fol- continue the division to the lower part of the stem, on the lowing manner: The instrument is first immersed in absolute supposition that it is constructed so as to be of exactly the alcohol, and the point or level at which it stands is marked same diameter throughout, that is, wherever a horizontal 100, care being taken to ballast it so that this point is always section may be taken. found near the top of the stem. Mixtures are then formed containing 100 parts in volume of 95, 90, 85, 80, &c., of absolute alcohol, and 5, 10, 15, 20, &c., respectively of water. The instrun ent is successively immersed in these mixtures, and the poit ts or levels at which it stands are respectively marked 95, 90, 85, 80, &c., accordingly. In order to complete the graduation, it is necessary only to divide each interval into 5 equal parts.

If the instrument thus graduated should sink, for example, to 58 in an alcoholic mixture, this would indicate that in 100 parts of volume, it contains 58 parts of absolute alcohol and 42 parts of water. It is, moreover, necessary to take the temperature into account; for when this increases or diminishes, the density of the alcohol conversely diminishes or increases accordingly, and the instrument consequently sinks more or less in the same alcoholic mixture. To meet this case, GayLussac constructed for his alcohol-test-tables of correction, by means of which the indications of the instrument may be rectified, according to the temperature of the mixture as shown by

the thermometer.

Saline-tests or measures are also graduated, on the principle of the preceding instrument, to show the quantity of salt by weight contained in different solutions. The zero of these instruments answers to pure water, and they are graduated by dissolving 5, 10, 15, 20, &c., equal parts by weight of a given salt in 95, 90, 85, 80, &c., equal parts by weight respectively of pure water, taking care that in the different solutions the salt and the water are thoroughly mixed. Immersing the instrument successively in these solutions, and marking the numbers 5, 10, 15, 20, &c., respectively at the points where the instrument stands in equilibrium, and dividing the intervals into 5 equal parts, the apparatus is completed. Such instruments have this inconvenience, that every separate kind of salt requires a special saline-test. That, for instance, which has been graduated for the nitrate of potassa, would give indications entirely wrong in a solution of carbonate of potassa.

On the same principle are constructed milk-tests, winetests, and spirit-tests, all called by the general name of hydrometers (from the Greek, and signifying water-measures); these instruments are employed in determining the quantity of water which may have been introduced into these liquids for the purposes of fraud. But such instruments are not to be wholly depended upon, since the densities of milk and of wine, for example, are very variable, even when they are in a perfectly natural state; hence, fraud might be attributed to indications which were due rather to the naturally bad qualities of these liquids. Similar test instruments are used by medical men for the liquids found in the human body.

Instruments called densimeters (a Latin-Greek compound, signifying density measure) have been invented for the purpose of showing the relative density of a liquid according to the degree to which they sink therein. The densimeter of GayLussac is exactly similar to the areometer of Baumé, represented in fig. 39. It only differs from it in the principle of its graduation, which varies according as it is intended to be used for liquids more or less dense than water. In the former of these cases, the instrument is ballasted, when immersed in pure water, so that it shall sink to the point a at the top of the stem. Taking a liquid of which the density is known, and greater than that of water, say in the ratio of 4 to 3, we immerse the instrument in it, and find that it stands at the level of the point в on the stem. Now, if we represent by and v' the volumes of the parts of the instrument respectively immersed in water and in the given liquid, these volumes are to one another in the inverse ratio of the densities of these liquids, according to a former lesson: we have therefore v :v :: 4 : 3 ; whence, v'=&v. 4:3;

density of another liquid, say that of sulphuric acid, is required; The instrument being now graduated, suppose that the immerse the instrument in the liquid, and if it sinks to the level or point marked 54 on the stem, this indicates that the volume of the liquid displaced is represented by 54, that of the volume of water being represented by 100. Now, as every floating body displaces a weight of the liquid in which it is immersed equal to its own, it follows that the volume of water or 100, and the volume of sulphuric acid 54, have the same weight; but the volumes of bodies of equal weights are in the inverse ratio of their densities. Consequently, if we represent the density of sulphuric acid by x, that of water being unity, we have x: 1 :: 100: 54; whence x= 100=1.85, which is the density of sulphuric acid.

If the densimeter is intended to measure the density of liquids lighter than water, the instrument must be ballasted so that the point marked 100, corresponding to pure water, may be placed at the bottom of the stem. At its upper extremity is then placed a weight equal to the fourth of that of the instrusented by 100, its weight will then be represented by 125. ment. Now, the weight of the instrument alone being repreThis number 125 being marked on the stem, as another point of level, we divide the interval between the points marked 100 and 125 into 25 equal parts, and continue the divisions to the and 125 into 25 equal parts, and continue the divisions to the top of the stem.

The application of the densimeter of Gay-Lussac requires a quantity of liquid sufficient to fill a vessel of considerable capacity. In certain cases, however, especially in physiology, when experimenting on animal liquids, it often happens that we can only obtain a few grains of the animal matter. This led to the invention of the densimeter of M. Rousseau, which accomplishes the object in view. This instrument is of the form of the areometer of Baumé, fig. 40; but the top of the stem is Fig. 40.

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furnished with a small cup for the reception of the liquid whose density is required. We shall here show how the inventor graduated his instrument, according to the French system of weights. On the sides of the cup is placed a mark indicating a capacity A c, equal to that of a cubic centimetre (or 06103 of a cubic inch, which is rather less than of a cubic inch). In order to graduate the instrument,it is ballasted in such a manner that in distilled water at the maximum density it sinks to the point в at the bottom of the stem, and this is the zero point of the instrument. The cup is then filled with

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distilled water of the maximum density up to the point A, that is, to the capacity of a cubic centimetre, or, which is the same thing, equal to the weight of a gramme (or 15'440 troy grains). At the point to which the instrument now sinks the number 20 is marked. The interval from 0 to 20 is then divided into 20 equal parts, and the divisions are continued to the top of the stem. The stem being exactly of the same diameter throughout, each division now corresponds to 20 or 05 of a gramme (i.e., 772 of a troy grain). This graduation being made, if we wish to find the density of a liquid, say bile, we fill the cup A c with it, up to the mark formerly mentioned, and if the instrument sinks to the division marked 202, we find that the weight of the bile in the cup is equal to 05 gramme + 20:5, or 1025 gramme, that is, the weight of water being 1, the weight of bile is 1·025, a number which represents the density of bile, that of water being unity; for the weights of bodies of the same volume are in the same ratio as their densities.

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The other adjectives in us, as βαρυς, heavy, βαθύς, deep. βραχυς, short, δασος, thick, ευρυς, broad, οξυς, sharp, πρεσβυς, old, ωκυς, swift, take the forms in τερος, τατος, thus :

Ρ. βαθυς. Ν. βαθυ. C. βαθυτερος. S. βαθυ-τατος. The forms των and ιστος are taken also by two adjectives ending in pos, namely αισχρος, hateful, shameful, and εχθρος,

hostile; the termination of being cut off; as

Ρ. αισχρος. Ο. αισχειων. Ν αισχ-ιον. S. αισχριστος.

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6. μικρος

small

μικρότατος 39

ελάττων (ελάσσων)

ελάχιστος "

7. ολιγος

few

μειων

ολιγιστος

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8. μεγας

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9. πολυς 10. ραδιος 11, πεπων 12. πιων

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Several adjectives which express the idea of order or succession appear in the comparative and superlative only, since from their import they cannot denote an absolute quality, and may be used only in comparison. Their root will be found in a preposition, or adverb of place; e. g.

(from προ, before) (from avw, up) (from ύπερ, over)

Adjectives without a Positive. προτερος, prior, ανωτερος, upper,

υπερτερος, higher,

(from ύπο? under) ύστερος, posterior, (from εξ, from)

πρωτος, first. ανωτατος, upmost. υπέρτατος, highest. ύστατος, most behind. εσχατος, last, most from, most remote.

(from πλησιον, near, in Homer πλησιος) πλησιαίτερος, nearer. (from προσω, forwards) προσώτερος, further, more in advance,

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πλησιαίτατος, nearest.

προσώτατος, furthest.

Ελευθερος, α, ον, free.
Μαλακος, η, ον, soft.
Εμφυτος, ον, inborn.

Ευτυχης, ες, fortunate.
Ισχύω, I am strong.
Κελεύω, I order.
Σκωπτω, I jeer.

Στεργω, I love, I am satisfed
with, I put up with.
Ενίοτε, sometimes.
η, η, either, or.

Συμβουλος, ου, o, an adviser.
Γείτων, ονος, ὁ, a neighbour.
Ὡς, with a superlative, adds strength to it, as quam in Latin,
e. g., ὡς ταχιστος, quam celerrimus, as swift as possible.

EXERCISES.GREEK-ENGLISH.

Ουχ ὁ μακρότατος βιος αριστος εστιν, αλλα ὁ σπουδαιοτατος. Μετρον επι πασιν αριστον (sc. εστιν). Γνωμαι των γεραιτερων αμείνους εισιν. Σύμβουλος ουδεις εστι βελτιων χρονου. Η λεγε σιγης κρείττονα, η σιγην εχε. ασφαλεστατον. Σκώπτεις, ω λῳστε. ευτυχέστεροι εισιν.

Αει κρατιστον εστι το Βελτιονων κακιους ενιοτε Ουκ εστι λυπης χειρον ανθρωπῳ κακοι. Κολακεια των αλλων ἁπάντων κακων χειριστον εστιν. Ανηρ μαλακος την ψυχην (as to his soul, mind) και (even) χρηματων ήττων. Ταις γυναιξιν ἡ σωφροσυνη καλλιστη αρετη εστιν. Ουκ εστι κτημα καλλιον φιλου. Ἡ δουλεια τῳ ελευθερῳ αλγιστη εστιν. Ἡ οδος μηκιστη εστιν. Ο κροκόδειλος εξ ελαχιστου

A number of adjectives not being reducible to either of γιγνεται μεγιστος. Η γη ελαττων εστι του ήλιου. Στεργε και these forms, are called irregular. I subjoin a list of

τα μειω. Ολιγιστοι ανθρωποι ευδαιμονες εισιν. Ουδεις νομος.

ισχυει μείζον της ανάγκης. Μικρα κερδη πολλακις μείζονας βλαβας φερει. Αναρχιας μειζον ουκ εστι κακον. Ο πόλεμος πλειστα κακα φερει. Εμφυτος εστι, τοις ανθρωποις ή του πλειονος επιθυμια. Γυνη εσθλη πλειστα αγαθα τῳ οικῳ φερει. Τα αναγκαια του βιου φερε ὡς ῥαστα (as easily as you can). Το κελευειν όμον εστι του πραττειν. Οἱ της σοφής καρποι πεπαιτας τοι εισι. Εν τῳ του πατρος κηπῳ οἱ της αμπελου βοτρυες πεπαίτεροι εισιν, η εν τῳ του γειτονος. Ιβηρια τρέφει πιοτατα προβατα.

ENGLISH-GREEK.

5. εις, εισα, εν,

6. ας, αινα, αν,

7. ãs, ãoa, av,

The

There is nothing better than a very diligent life. opinion of the ancients is very good. Time is the best adviser The safest is the best. Grief is a very great evil. Nothing is worse than flattery. The intemperate man is the slave of pleasures. Women have nothing more beautiful than wisdom. To a free man nothing is worse than slavery. The crocodile is very long. The son is less than the father. The 9 ην, εινα, εν, bad often have more property than the good. War brings

8. ᾶς, ἄσα, αν,

very great evils. It is easy to command, it is hard to obey. 10. ους, οὖσα, ον, We enjoy most (superlative neut. of ἡδυς) the ripest fruits.

My father's sheep are fatter than those of (the article τα) 11. ων, ουσα, ον,

his neighbour.

12. ων, ουσα, ον,

Contracted,

In order to assist you in mastering the subject, I here put together the different terminations of adjectives. I add those of the participles, because the participle and the adjective are declined alike; remember that both adjective and participle are also declined like nouns of the same terminations. will also call to mind that adjectives are divided into three 13. ως, υία, ος, classes: 1, those of three terminations; 2, those of two terminations ; 3, those of one termination.

You

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Ν. μελιτο-εις, μελιτοεσσα, μετ

λιτο-εν honeyish

μελιτούς, μελιτοῦσσα, μελι-
τοῦν

G. μελιτοῦντος, μελιτούσσης, μελιτοῦντος.
Ν. λειφθεις, λειφθεισα, λειφθεν, left
G. λειφθεντος, λειφθείσης, λειφθεντος
Ν. τιθείς, τιθεισα, τιθεν, placing
G. τίθεντος, τιθείσης, τίθεντος.

Ν. μελας, μελαινα, μελαν, black
G. μελανος, μελαίνης, μελανος.
Ν. πας, πασα, παν, all, every
G. παντος, πασης, παντος

Ν.Ρ. παντες, πασαι, παντα

G. παντων, πασων, παντων.

Ν. λειψᾶς, λειψᾶσα, λειψαν, having left
G. λείψαντος, λειψάσης, λειψαντος.

Ν. τερην, τερεῖνα, τερεν

G. τερενος, τερείνης, τερενος.

Ν. διδους, διδοῦσα, διδον, giving
G. δίδοντος, διδουσης, διδοντος.

Ν. εκων, εκοῦσα, εκον, willing

G. έκοντος, εκουσης, εκοντος.

Ν. λειπων, λειπουσα, λειπον, leaving
G. λείποντος, λειπούσης, λειποντος
Ν. τιμῶν, τιμῶσα, τιμῶν, honouring
G. τιμῶντος, τιμωσης, τιμῶντος
Ν. φιλῶν, φιλοῦσα, φιλοῦν, loving

G. φιλουντος, φίλουσης, φιλούντος.

Ν. τετύφως, τετυφυία, τετυφος, having struck
G. τετυφοτος, τετυφυίας, τετυφοτος.

2. Adjectives of Two Terminations..

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2. ους, ουν, Ν.

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G.

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3. ως, ων,

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4. ων, ον,

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written | 5. ης, ες,

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6. ην, εν,

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7. wp, op,

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8. ις, ί,

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G. αθρόου, αθρόας, αθρόου

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G.P. αθρόων, αθρόων, αθρόων,

G.

αδακρυος

αδακρυος

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4. αρ, G. αρος, 5. ης, G. ου,

6. ης, G. ητος, G. ῆνος,

7. ην, 8. ως, G. ὤτος, 9. ις, G. ιδος, 10. υς, 3. υδος,

11. ξ

} honoured

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Ν. τιμηεις, τιμηεσσα, τιμηεν τιμῆς, τιμῆσσα, τιμῆν G. τιμῆντος, τιμήσσης, τιμῆντος

G. γος G. κος

G. χος

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Ν. δ, ή, ακαμας, G. ακαμαντος, unwearied Ν. ὁ, ἡ, φυγας, G. φυγαδος, feeing, an exile.

Ν. ὁ, ἡ, μακαρ, also ή μακαιρα, blessed
Ν. &, εθελοντης, G. εθελοντου, willing,
spontaneous

Ν. ό, ή, αργής, G. αργητος, white
Ν. ό, ή, απτην, G. απτῆνος, unfeathered
Ν. ό, ή, αγνως, G. αγνῶτος, unknown
Ν. ὁ, ἡ, αναλκις, G. αναλκιδος, powerless
Ν. δ, ή, νέηλυς, G. νεηλύδος, recently

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10. ους, ον, Ν.

μονόδους

μονόδον having one

G.

3.

1. as, G. ov,

2. ας, G. αντος,

3. ας, G. αδος,

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(1) A verb is said to be reflexive, when it represents the subject as acting upon itself. We have several such in English: he deports himself well; he bethought himself; they betook themselves to the woods; where the subject and the object, in each case, being identical, the verb is made reflexive. It is manifest, that any active transitive verb may thus become a reflexive verb.

(2) Strictly speaking, however, those only are accounted reflexives that cannot otherwise be used. The number of these in German is much larger than in English Some of them require the reciprocal pronoun to be in the Dative, but most of them govern the Accusative: thus, (with the Dative), ich bilte mir nicht ein, I do not imagine; (with the Accusative,) ich schäme mich, I am ashamed. Further examples are the following:

wir würden

lihr würdet sie würden

gelobt worden sein

I should have

been praised

WITH THE DATIVE.

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WITH THE ACCUSATIVE

Sich anschicken, to prepare. Sich äußern, to intimate. Sich bedanken, to be thankful for. Sich bedenken, to pause, to think. Sich begeben, to repair to; to happen. Sich behelfen, to put up with; to make do. Sich freuen, to rejoice. Sich widersprechen, to contradict. Sich widersehen, to resist. (3) Since the action of these verbs is confined to the agent,

self.

Sich vornehmen, to propose to

one's self.

Sich verstellen, to represent to

one's self.

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