gioles or radicles in which the roots terminate, and in the leaves. By these organs, vegetables absorb the carbonic acid, the ammonia, the oxygen, the hydrogen, the carbon and the nitrogen necessary for their nutrition. The liquids and the salts which they hold in solution are at first absorbed by the radicles, by the double action of endosmose and capillary attraction; then the sap produced by the vegetable, increasing in density in its superior parts, the phenomenon of endosmose still takes place and gives it an ascending direction. Moreover, the ascent of the sap is favoured by the vacuum which the exhalation of the leaves in the elevated parts of the plant has a tendency to produce. As to the capillary action, it can only raise the liquids in the lower cellules and cannot produce a current. By this action alone the ascent would only be about the eighth of an inch. Dr. Boucherie, of Bordeaux, has made a fortunate application of the absorbing property of vegetables, by introducing into the structure of woods, salts of such a nature that one kind gives them colours more or less bright, and another kind increases their flexibility and tenacity, or renders them less combustible. For this purpose, at the lower part of the trunk, a cavity is made which communicates with the solution proposed to be absorbed. In a few days, this is transferred to the top of the tree. In this manner, a brown tint is obtained by the pyrolignite of iron; a black, by tannin; and a blue, by the prussiate of potash. Absorption in Animals.-In the lowest class of animated beings, which is possessed only of a cellular structure, the process of nourishment is carried on, as in vegetables, by imbibition and endosmose. In the higher classes of animals, absorption takes place. For example, garancin or madder, when taken interiorly by these animals, penetrates their bones and gives them a red colour. In like manner, when a liquid is in contact with a cutaneous surface from which the epidermis has been removed, or with a mucous membrane, it is found that, as these substances are very vascular, the liquid passes into the vessels by the effect of endosmose, which constitutes the absorption. The more that substances approach the state of a perfect liquid, the more easily are they absorbed. In order, however, that the absorption of liquids may take place, the membraneous substances must be wetted. Fatty substances, which are not liquified, are not absorbed; but M. Bernard has observed that they are easily made absorbable by forming them into an emulsion with pancreatic juice. Dr. Lose has recently observed that, by treating cod-liver oil in the same manner, it acquires greater energy, because that by this means it is more fully absorbed. Absorption, as well as endosmose, is increased by heat. After profuse perspiration or bleeding, absorption is likewise increased. Solid substances are also absorbed by the animal system. This is frequently manifested by the saturnine paralysis, which seizes persons who have had their hands for a long time in contact with the salts of lead or litharge. After the poisoning has taken place, it is found in many cases that the deleterious substances were absorbed by different organs. LESSONS IN GREEK. No. XIX. By JOHN R. BEARD, D.D. THE NUMERALS; RECAPITULATORY EXERCISES. THE numerals express the relation of number. According to their import they may be divided into five classes; 1, the cardinals; 2, the ordinals; 3, the multiplicatives; 4, the proportionals; and 5, the substantive numerals. The foundation of the whole are the cardinals, or the chief, so called because they are the hinge (in Latin, cardo) on which the others turn. The cardinals answer to the question, how many? as one," two," "five," &c. Of the cardinals, the four that come first, and the round numbers from two hundred (diakoσioi) up to ten thousand (μvoioi), as well as the compounds of μvoioi, have the inflexions of adjectives; all the rest are indeclinable. The thousands are formed by the help of numeral adverbs, e.g., тpis-xiλioi, 3000. The ordinals denote the order in which the numbers follow, or the place in the series held by a particular number; as the fourth, Teraproc. They are all inflected like adjectives of three terminations. The multiplicatives denote how often a quality is repeated, as two-fold, four-fold; they are compounds of lovs, and have three adjectival terminations, ous, ñ, ovv, as dirλous. Then there are numeral adverbs in akis, which answer to the question how often? as έkaTovTakıç, a hundred times. ακις, denote so much the more than some other object, as dinλarios, The proportionals are compounds of rλaolos, a, ov, and twice as much. number, as ǹ dvas, g. ados, duality. The substantive numerals express the abstract idea of the elements of words. The alphabet serves as signs for number, as well as supplies and twenty letters of the alphabet are so many cyphers. In Hence, with the Greeks, the four the series, however, three obsolete forms are introduced, 5, namely, after & the letter Bav or digamma, r or Ert, that is s and Zaurt, 7, as the sign for 900. as the sign for six; also коTTа, that is 5 as the sign for 90; The first eight letters, from alpha to theta, bau or sti included, make the first series consisting of units; the ensuing eight, from iota to pi, including koppa, form the second series, or the succession of tens; and the remaining eight, from rho to omega, together with sampi, make up the hundreds. Eleven is a', that is ten and one; twelve is 6', ten and two, &c. Up to 999, the letters when used as figures have an accent over them each, thus á, y'. When more than one sign stand thus together, the mark is over the last. With 1000 the alphabet begins afresh. In order to indicate this the mark is placed under the letter, thus á — ¿, but a — = 1000; í 10 but=10,000. The present year in Greek numerals is written thus, awvd, 1854. I here subjoin lists of the cardinals and the ordinals, accompanied by our numbers and the corresponding Greek signs. The English words one, two, three, &c., need scarcely be added, and of course first, second, third, tenth, &c., will readily be supplied by the student. Cardinals. Ordinals. πρωτος, η, ον δεύτερος, α, ον τρίτος, η, ον τέτταρες, α, οι τεσσαρ τέταρτος, η, ον 4 δε 5 ť πεντε πέμπτος, η, ον έκτος, η, ον ἑβδομος, η, ον ογδοος, η, ον εννατος, η, ον δέκατος, η, ον ἑνδέκατος, η, ον δωδέκατος, η, ον τριςκαιδέκατος, η, ον 14 ιδ' τετταρεςκαιδεκα οι τεσσ, τετταρακαιδεκατος, η, ον 15 ιε' πεντεκαιδεκα 16 ις' εκκαιδεκα 17 ιζ' ἑπτακαιδεκα 18 της οκτωκαιδεκα 19 ' εννεακαιδεκα 20 κ' εικοσι(ν) 21 και εικοσιν είς, μια, ἐν 30 λ' τριακοντα 40 με τετταράκοντα οι τεσσ. 50 ν πεντηκοντα 60 ξ' έξηκοντα 70 ο ἑβδομηκοντα 80 π' ογδοηκοντα 90 5' ενενηκοντα 100 ρ' ἑκατον πεντεκαιδέκατος, η, ον ἑκκαιδέκατος, η, ον ἑπτακαιδέκατος, η, ον οκτωκαιδέκατος, η, ον εννεακαιδέκατος, η, ον εικοστος, η, ον εικοστος, η, ον, πρωτος, η, ον τριακοστος, η, ον τετταρακοστος, η, ον πεντηκοστος, η, ον ἑξηκοστος, η, ον ἑβδομηκοστος, η, ον ογδοηκοστος, η, ον ενενηκοστος, η, ον ἑκατοστος, η, ον 200 σ' διακοσιοι, αι, α 300 τ' τριακοσιοι, αι, α 400 υ τετρακοσιοι, αι, α 500 φ' πεντακοσιοι, αι, α 600 χ' εξακοσιοι, αι, α 700 ψ' ἑπτακοσιοι, αι, α 300 ω' οκτακοσιοι, αι, α 900 ' εννακοσίοι, αι, α 1000 α χιλιοι, αι, α 2003 β διςχιλιοι, αι, α 3000 γ τριςχιλίοι, αι, α 4000 δ τετρακιςχίλιοι, αι, α 5000 ε πεντακιςχίλιοι, αι, α 6000 5 έξακις γλιοι, αι, α 7000 ζ ἑπτακιςχίλιοι, αι, α 8000 η οκτακισχίλιοι, αι, α 9000 9 εννακιςχίλιοι, αι, α 10,000 ι μυριοι, αι, α 20,000 κ διςμυριοι, αι, α 300,000, ο δεκακιςμύριοι, αι, α διακοσιοστός, η, ον τριακοσιοστος, η, ον τετρακοσιοστος, η, ον πεντακοσιοστός, η, ον ἑξακοσιοστος, η, ον ἑπτακοσιοστος, η, ον οκτακοσιοστός, η, ον εννακοσιοστός, η, ον χιλιοστος, η, ον διςχιλιοστος, η, ον τριςχιλιοστος, η, ον τετρακιςχιλιοστος, η, ον πεντακιςχιλιοστος, η, ον ἑξακιςχιλιοστος, η, ον ἑπτακιςχιλιοστος, η, ον οκτακιςχιλιοστος, η, ον εννακιςχιλιοστος, η, ον μυριοστος, η, ον διςμυριοστος, η, ον δεκακιςμυριοστος, η, ον. In forming compound numbers you may put the smaller first and the larger second, interposing και and, as πεντε και εικοσιν, five and twenty ; or you may reverse the order, still howerer keeping the conjunction, as εικοσι και πεντε, twenty and tre, 25. Thus, 345 will be either πεντε και τετταράκοντα και τριακοσιοι, οι τριακοσιοι και τετταρακονα και πεντε. Declension of the four first Numerals. Namely, είς, one ; δυο, two ; τρεις, three ; τετταρες, four. Ν. είς δυο μια Θ. ένος μιας ένος δυοιν δυοιν δυο τρια τέτταρας τετταρα. EXERCISES.-ENGLISH-GREEK. Ευφράτης ποταμος εστι το ευρος τετταρων σταδιων. Το δε στα διον έχει παρα τοις Ρωμαίοις πεντε και εικούσι και έκατον βηματα, η πεντε και εικοσι και εξακοσιους πόδας. Κυρῳ παρησαν αἱ εκ Πελοποννησου νηες τριακοντα πειτε. Του Σαρου, Κιλικίας Το δε πλεθρον έχει ποτάμου, το ευρος ην τρια πλευρα. ἑκατον πόδας. Κύδνος, Κιλικιας ποταμος, ευρος εστι δυο πλεθα ρων. Του Μαιανδρου, Φρυγίας ποταμου, το ευρος εστιν εικοσι πεντε ποδων. Ὁ παρασάγγης, Περσικόν μετρον, έχει τριακοντα σταδια η πεντηκοντα και ἑπτακοσίους και οκτακισχιλιους και μυρίους πόδας. Αριθμός συμπασης της όδου της αναβασεως και καταβάσεως, ἡ ὑπο Ξενοφωντος συγγραφεται, ησαν σταθμοι διακόσιοι δεκα πεντε, παρασαγγαι χιλιοι έκατον πεντηκοντα πεντε, σταδια τρισμύρια τετρακισχιλια ἑξακοσια πεντηκοντα, χρονου πληθος της αναβάσεως και καταβάσεως ενιαυτός και τρεις μήνες. Ένας φιλια συνετου κρείττων εστιν ασυνετων ἁπάντων. Του Κυρου στρατεύματος ην αριθμος των με Ελληνων ὁπλιται μυριοι και τετρακοσιοι, πελτασται δε δισχιλίοι και πεντακοσιοι, των δε μετα Κυρου Βαρβαρων δεκα μυριάδες και άρματα δρεπανηφορα αμφι τα εικοσιυ. GREEK-ENGLISH. telligent ones. Seventy years produce about (αμφι and ace.) It is better to have one intelligent friend than many unin25,555 days. The sum total of the way from the battle at (εν) Babylon to (es) Cotyora, of the retreat, which Xenophon describes, is 122 stages, 620 parasangs, 18,600 stadia, the length of the time eight months. The number of the army is 39,850. (There) are four generals of the army, each of the four of (that is, commanding) 30,990 soldiers. In the battle (there) were present 96,650 soldiers and 150 scythe-bearing chariots. D. Φ. τρισι Α. τρεις Like εἷς decline its compounds ουδεις and μηδεις, no one, thus, ουδεις, ουδεμια, ουδεν; g. ουδενος, ουδεμιας, &c. Plural, ουδενες, ουδεμιαι, ουδενα, ουδεμων, ουδεσι, &c.; the δ is euphonic. Avo is often used as an indeclinable word for all cases. The numeral aμow, both, has, like duo in the genitive and dative οιν, thus, αμφοιν; the accusative is the same as the nominative; like δυο, αμφω is sometimes used as an indeclinable. Βαβυλων, ωνος, ς, Babylon. Πους, ποδος, δ, (Lat. pes) a foot. Αναβάσις, εως, ή, a going up, an expedition. Καταβάσις, εως, ή, a going down, retreat. Αρμα, ἁρμᾶτος, το, a carriage. Βημα, ατος, το, a step, stride. Στρατευμα, ατος, το, an army. Ευρος, ους, το, breadth. Πλήθος, ους, το, a multitude, Συνετος, η, ον, intelligent. Δρεπανηφορος, ον, scythe-bear ing. Συμπας, ἄσα, αν, all, all toge- 1 LESSONS IN CHEMISTRY.-No. XV. I PURPOSE beginning this lesson with a consideration of the distinctive properties of persalts of tin in solution. It was mentioned in the course of the preceding lesson, that our protochloride of tin required to be well protected against the atmosphere, otherwise it rapidly became converted into perchloride; nevertheless, it being now our object to prepare a perchloride of tin unmixed with protochloride, we must adopt some more ready means of imparting oxygen than that of mere exposure to atmospheric air. Nitric acid, or some of its compounds, are the bodies most commonly had recourse to by the chemist for imparting oxygen. You have already seen that nitric acid, when added to solid antimony and solid tin, is decomposed, with the evolution of orange-coloured offer a remark which is of universal application. Whenever you fumes, and a white powder in either case results: and here I may add nitric acid to any body, no matter what, and observe that the peculiar orange-coloured gas to which your attention has been more than once directed escapes, rest assured that the portion of the nitric acid has delivered up its oxygen to the substance operated upon. The following diagram will render this change more comprehensible than any mere words: From an examination of this diagram, it appears that nitric acid is composed of nitrogen and oxygen. The oxygen is represented in our diagram as divided into two portions, such being the result of decomposition. One of these portions goes to the tin, with which it combines, giving rise to oxide of tin; the other unites with the nitrogen, and forming the gas, binoxide of nitrogen, escapes. As regards this gas, you have already been informed that if collected without contact of atmospheric air, it is not orangecoloured, but altogether colourless. This circumstance, however, does not in any degree affect the practical truth of my remark, that whenever you see an orange-coloured gas escape after you have brought nitric acid in contact with any substance, the appearance is a proof that the nitric acid has been busy in giving oxygen. In order to render the preceding diagram more simple than it otherwise could have been, I have avoided the appending to it of proportional numbers. You may, however, add them, if you please, making the statement as follows: 2 equivalents of nitric acid of tin 2 2 of nitrogen 10 of oxygen 2 of binoxide of nitrogen 2 = 108 = 28 80 = 60 =146 |tion of the precipitate sulphuret by excess of reagent. Your attention was directed to this point whilst we were engaged on arsenic; I now direct your attention to the same in respect of tin, the sulphuret of which does not fall completely, so long as the liquor which should deposit it contains an excess of hydrosulphuric acid, easily recognisable by the smell. Chemists, well aware of this fact always submit a solution, through which hydrosulphuric acid as a precipitant has been passed, to a process of heating, in order to get rid of the excess of hydrosulphuric acid. In some cases this process of heating is carried on to the extent of ebullition; in others, the liquid is merely put to stand in a warm place for the space of a few hours. Practice and extended knowledge of the nature of the bodies operated upon can alone determine which process is the better of the two: in the case now under consideration, the process of continuous gentle heating should be adopted. In order to effect the conversion of protochloride into perchloride of tin, take about half a wineglassful of the solution, add to it about a teaspoonful (not measured in a teaspoon, however) of strong nitric acid; pour the mixture into an evaporating-dish or Florence flask, and boil; continue the boiling operation until all the liquid has been expelled by evaporation, and your protochlo-acid; which converts tin and antimony into insoluble oxides, the ride will have become converted into the perchloride of tin. Fig. No. 1. In conducting this evaporation, as well as all others which result In the liberation of corrosive vapours, care must be taken to make some provision for their escape. In laboratories special contrivances are adopted; but private operators cannot do better than to conduct such evaporations under an open chimney. As regards our present evaporation, it may be advantageously conducted by placing the Florence flask in a bed of hot sand: for the purpose of holding the latter, an iron ladle or fryingpan, as depicted in fig No. 1, may be used. Having evaporated all the liquid, and allowed the flask, ladle, sand, and all to cool, add water to the result and dissolve it out. Pour now a little into a test-glass, wine-glass, or any other convenient vessel, and try the effect of testing with hydrosulphuric acid and hydrosulphate of ammonia. If the conversion of protochloride into perchloride has been complete, you will obtain a yellow precipitate; if incomplete, the precipitate will be more or less black in direct proportion to the amount of protochloride still remaining untouched. Separation of Tin from Antimony.-We have already seen that tin and antimony admit of being separated from all the metals which have hitherto come under our notice by the agency of nitric other metals being dissolved. I shall now describe one of several methods which might be adopted for effecting the separation of these two metals. In the first place, the two insoluble oxides must be rendered soluble, which is accomplished by fusing them with carbonate of soda or potash. The process of rendering bodies soluble by fusion with alkalis, or their carbonates, will come fully under our notice when we arrive at the chemical examination of silica or flint. On the present occasion I shall not detail the process, being convinced that the descriptions involved would be rather too difficult for performance. Instead, therefore, of assuming that you are endeavouring to separate tin and antimony from each other, both existing in the condition of oxide, let us assume the problem to be the separation of tin from antimony, both existing in the metallic state. The first step in this operation will consist in obtaining both metals dissolved; and hydrochloric or muriatic acid (spirit of salt) is the best of all solvents that can be employed. Prepare, therefore, an alloy of antimony and tin, by fusing the two metals together in an iron spoon or the bowl of a tobacco-pipe. When prepared, break it into small fragments and throw the latter into a Florence flask. Pour hydrochloric acid into the flask, and apply heat, by which treatment the two metals will be caused to dissolve. Inasmuch as the treatment about to be adopted necessitates the existence of tin as a peroxide, it is well to add, towards the end of the operation, a little nitric acid. Divide the liquid result into two portions. Separation of the Antimony.-If into one portion of the liquid thus prepared and containing an excess of hydrochloric acid (that is essential) a piece of pure tin be immersed, and the whole warmed on a sand-bath, the antimony contained in the solution is thrown down in the form of a black powder, tin being dissolved from the bar to supply its place. By this simple method we obtain all the antimony originally present; and were our analysis quantitative, we might learn the exact amount of the antimony by collecting, drying, and finally weighing it. Separation of the Tin.-If into the other portion of the liquid a piece of zinc be immersed, with the same precautions before observed as regards acidity and temperature, the whole of the contained tin will be precipitated in the state of fine powder, but perfectly metallic. Were we engaged in performing a quantitative analysis, it is evident we could ascertain the exact amount of tin by collecting, washing, drying, and weighing the result. We must not discard the metal tin without taking some cognisance of In this case of incomplete conversion you will have to add a its peculiar effect on glass, which it renders white and opaque. mixture of nitric and muriatic acid, and repeat the evaporative For this purpose, powder a little flint glass; mix it with a little operation. borax, in order to increase its fusibility, and dipping the looped General Remarks concerning the Formation of Sulphurets by Hy-platinum wire, previously rendered adhesive by moisture, into it, drcsulphuric Acid Gas and Hydrosulphate of Ammonia.-Remem- take up a portion and fuse it into a bead. This bead you will find bering the general rule, that whenever it is merely desired to test to be beautifully transparent; but if you now moisten the bead the presence of a metal by the agency of hydrosulphuric acid, this again, and attach to it a little oxide of tin (produced by the action test may be employed in the state of aqueous solution-but that, of nitric acid on tin), and fuse the whole together in the outer or whenever it is desired to separate the whole of a metal contained oxidizing portion of the blow-pipe flame, the bead becomes white, in a liquid by hydrosulphuric acid, then the test should be used enamel-like, and opaque; under certain circumstances, arsenic in the form of a gas-let me now direct your attention to a phe-produces a similar effect, but no other metal. All the milk-whit nomenon noticeable in either case; as also when hydrosulphate of glass, so frequently met with in commerce, owes its peculiar ania is applied. The henomena yution is the resolance either to the presence of arsenic or tin. A sort of white fusible glass, chiefly composed of oxide of tin, and technically known as tin-glaze, is very celebrated in the history of pottery. You are perhaps aware that the ancient Greeks and Romans had no pottery similar to our own. The Samian pottery-and at a later period the Etruscan-although beautiful in many respects, was restrained as to its improvement within very narrow limits. The ware itself was red, and the utmost power of chromatic adornment was restricted to the imprinting of black. Beyond this the ornamental ceramic art of Greece and Rome did not go. Now it will at once be seen that, even had the ancient Greeks and Romans pussessed enamel colours, they could not have given effect to them on a red ground. Before this chromatic ornamentation could have been adopted, one of two things must have taken place: either the use of a pottery material so pure that the resulting ware would be white throughout, or the employment of a white enamel, as an envelope to hide the imperfections of coloured clay. The first plan had been adopted by the Chinese from time immemorial; the second plan was introduced into Europe by the Arabs of Spain. This ingenious people covered inferior pottery with a glaze of oxide of tin, and on this enamelled coloured figures. The first European factory of this ware was established in Majorca; hence the material is known as Majolica ware. ornamental slabs still existing in the Alhambra-beautiful as when they were first made-are of Majolica ware. The most curious fact remains to be told: although the Greeks and Romans were totally ignorant of the use of tin enamel, the Assyrians and Babylonians were so thoroughly conversant with this substance and its glazing properties, that they even employed it for the purpose of enamelling ornamental bricks, as specimens lately brought to light attest. The This discovery renders it doubtful whether the Saracens were so much the inventors of tin-glaze as the media for handing down a process which had been followed in Babylonia and Assyria, and which perhaps had never ceased to be followed in some obscure locality. LESSONS IN GERMAN.-No. LXXX. $ 98. PREFIXES SEPARABLE AND INSEPARABLE, (1) The Prefixes of this class, when separable, are always under the full accent; when inseparable, the ascent falls upon the radical. (2) Their effect, when separable, is, in union with radicals, to produce certain intransitive compounds, in which each of the parts (prefix and radical) has its own peculiar and natural signification. There are, however, some compounds of burch and um, in which, though these particles are separable, the verbs are, nevertheless, transitive. Still, it will be found, that in such cases the signification of the compound is figurative; as, umbringen, to bring about (one's death); i.e. to kill. (3) Their effect, when inseparable, is, in connection with the radicals, to form certain transitive compounds; which, for the most part, are used in a figuraive or metaphorical sense. (4) We subjoin a list of the prefixes of this class; illustrating each by a couple of examples; the first being one in which the prefix is separable; the second one in which it is inseparable. dify the signification of verbs, participles, adjectives and, often, (1) Adverbs in German, as in other languages, serve to moalso that of one another: denoting, for the most part, certain limitations of time, place, degree and manner. Hence are they usually classified according to their meaning. (2) They are indeclinable; and formed, either by derivation or composition, from almost every other part of speech: of some, however, the origin is wholly unknown. Arranged according to derivation, adverbs are divisible into the following classes: Um'gehen, to go around; Un'terschieben, to shove or push under; Weislich, wisely; " weise, wise. frei, free; sure. Blindlings, blindly; ,, blind, blind. (2) The letters, also, as above stated, added to adjectives, gives rise to a class of adverbs: thus, The letter is, also, sometimes affixed to adverbs ending in mal; as, vormals, formerly; damals, at the time; vielmale, many times. For numeral adverbs ending in mal, lei, &c., see the Section on Numerals (3) Here note, also, that almost all German adjectives, in the absolute form, that is, in the simple form without the terminations of declension, are employed as adverbs: thus, er rennt schnell, he runs rapidly; er handelt ehrlich, he acts honestly. § 103. ADVERB FORMED FROM PRONOUNS. (1) These are, chiefly, ba, there; from ber, die, das, this or that wo, where; from wer, was, who, what; her, hither, and hin, thither; from some corresponding demonstrative pronoun no longer found. (2) The pronominal adverbs in combination with other words, give rise to a number of compounds. Thus ba and wo, united with prepositions, serve often instead of the dative and accusative with prepositions, serve often instead of the dative and accusative (neuter) of the pronouns der, wer and welcher, respectively. It will be noticed, that when the other word begins with a vowel or with the letter n, da and no are written bar and wor; that is, that r is inserted for the sake of euphony. The following are comdounds of da and wo: Dabei, thereby, i. e. by this or that. Dafür, therefore, i. e. for this or that. Damit, therewith, i. e. with this or that. Darin, therein, i. e. in this or that. Darunter, thereunder or among, i. e. under this or that. Darum, there about or therefore, i. e. for this or that; therefore. Daran, thereon, i. e. on this or that, Darauf, thereupon, i. e. upon this or that. Daraus, therefrom, i. e. from this or that. Davon, thereof, i. e. of this or that. Dazu, thereto, i. e. tu this or that. Dadurch, there-through or thereby, i. e. through or by this or that. Wobei, whereby, i. e. by which. i. e. about or for which; Woran, whereto, Wozu, whereto, i. e. to which. Woburch, whereby, i. e. by or through which. $ 104. ADVERBS FORMED FROM VERBS. (1) Adverbs are formed from verbs by suffixing to the radical part the termination lich. All adverbs so formed, however, are equally employed as adjectives: thus, Glaublich (from glauben, to believe), credibly. $ 105. ADVERBS FORMED BY COMPOSITION. verbs in German is produced by the union of various parts of (1) Besides the classes given above, a numerous list of adspeech. Thus, the word Weife (mode, manner), combined with nouns, form a class of adverbs employed chiefly in specifying things individually or separately: thus, schrittweise, step by step; theilweise, part by part; tropfenweise, drop by drop; wogenweise, wave by wave; like waves. Weife is also added to adjectives; as, diebischerweise, thievishly; glücklicherweise, fortunately. (2) Sometimes an adverb and a preposition are united; examples of which may be found above under the head of adverbs formed from pronouns. (3) Sometimes adverbs are formed by the union or the repetition of prepositions: as, durchaus, throughout; thoroughly; durch und durch, through and through. (4) Sometimes a noun and a pronoun joined together serve as an adverb; as, meinerseits, on my side; bieffeits, on this side; allerdings, by all means. (5) Sometimes one adverb is formed from another by the addition of a suffix; as, rüdlings, backwards: sometimes by the union of another adverb; as, nimmermehr, nevermore. (6) Sometimes the several words composing a phrase are, by being brought into union, made to perform the office of an adverb: thus, fürwahr (for für wahr), verily; sonst (for the o solete fo ne ift, if it is not), otherwise; else. $ 106. COMPARISON OF ADVERBS. (1) Many adverbs, chiefly, however, those expressive of manner, are susceptible of the degrees of comparison. The forms for these are the same in adverbs as in adjectives. (2) It must be observed, however, that, when a comparison, strictly speaking, is intended, the form of the superlative produced by prefixing am (See Obs. § 38.) should always be employed; as, er schreibt am schönsten, he writes the most beautiful (of all). (3) In like manner her and hin appear, also combined with other words. Between these two particles a distinction exists, wherever they are used, whether alone or in composition with viduals one with another, but merely to denote extreme excel(3) If, on the other hand, we purpose, not to compare indiother words, which should be well understood and always remem-lence or eminence, there are three ways in which it may probered. They are, in signification, exact opposites: her indicating perly be done: first, by using the simple or absolute form of motion or direction towards the speaker; bin implying motion the superlative; as, er grüßt freundlicht, he greets or salutes in a motion or direction towards the speaker; hin implying motion or direction away from the speaker. The following are exmanner very friendly, very cordially; secondly, by employing amples: aufs (auf+das) with the accusative, or zum (3u+bem) with the Serah, down hither (i. e. where Hinab, down thither, (i. e. away dative, of the superlative; as, aufs freundlichste, in a manner very the speaker is). Herauf, up hither. Heraus, out hither. Herein, in hither; into this place. from the speaker). Hierhin, thither; this way for. Hinüber, over thither. friendly; zum schönsten, in a manner very beautiful; lastly, by adding to the simple form of the superlative the termination ens; bestens, the best or in the best manner; höchstens, at the highest or at the most. $107. THE PREPOSITION. (1) The prepositions in German, that is, the words employed merely to denote the relations of things, are commonly classified |