EXTRACTS FROM THE NEW TESTAMENT. πεντε, ἱππεις δε εξακιςχιλιους, ελεφαντας δε έξηκοντα. 3. Τους Σηρας ἱστορουσι μεχρι τριακοσίων ζην ετων, και τους Χαλδαιους ύπερ τα έκατον ετη βιοῦν λογος (εοτι). 4. Αργανθώνιος, 1. Ειπε δε ὁ Ιησους, Ποιησατε τους ανθρωπους αναπεσειν. ο Ταρτησσιων βασιλευς, πεντηκοντα και έκατον ετη βίωσαι Ην δε χορτος πολυς εν τῳ τόπῳ. Ανέπεσον ουν οἱ ανδρες τον λεγεται. 5. Ο Πλάτων ετελευτησε τῳ πρωτῳ της ογδοης και αριθμον ώσει πεντακισχίλιοι. (John vi. 10). 2. Πολλοι δε των ἑκατοστης Ολυμπιαδος, βιους ετος ἐν προς τοις ογδοηκοντα. 6. ακουσαντων τον λογον επίστευσαν και εγενηθη ὁ αριθμος των Δημητριος τις ειπε τῳ Νέρωνι συ μεν απειλεις εμοι τον θανατον, ανδρων ώσει χιλιαδες πεντε. (Acts iv. 4). 3. Και είδον και σοι δε ή φυσις. 7. Σχολαστικος απορων, τα βιβλια αυτου ηκουσα φωνην αγγελων πολλων κυκλῳ του θρονου και των επιπρασκε, και γραφων προς τον πατερα έλεγε, συγχαιρε ἡμιν, ζωων και των πρεσβυτερων και ην ο αριθμος αυτων μυριάδες πατερ, ηδη γαρ ήμας τα βιβλια τρεφει. 8. Αναχαρσις ὁ μυριάδων και χιλιαδες χιλιαδων, λεγοντες φωνῇ μεγαλη, Αξιον Σκύθης ερωτηθεις ύπο τινος, τί εστι πολεμιον ανθρωποις ; εστι το αρνιον το εσφαγομενον λαβειν την δυναμιν και πλουτον αυτοι, εφη, ἑαυτοις. 9. Σχολαστικος οικιαν πωλων, λιθον απ' και σοφιαν και ισχυν και τιμην και δοξαν ναι ευλογιαν, (Rev. αυτης εις δειγμα περιέφερε. 10. Κριτης ων, αει ταύτα περι των v. 11, 12). 4. Ο εχων νουν ψηφισάτω τον αριθμον του θηριου αυτών γιγνωσκε, ουδεν τρος χαριν ποιων. 11. Ψυχης επιμελου αριθμος γαρ ανθρωπου εστι, και ο αριθμός αυτου (sc. εστιν 5. Ο δε Ιωαννης διεκωλυεν αυτον, της σεαυτου. 12. Βουλου αρεσκειν πασι. 13. Παντων μαλιστα χξς. (Rev. xiii. 18). σαυτον αισχυνου. 14. Ῥᾷστον ἁπαντων εστιν αύτον εξαπατᾶν. λεγων, Εγω χρειαν εχω ύπο σου βαπτισθηναι, και συ ερχῇ προς 15. Ο αγαθε, μη αγνοει σεαυτον. 16. Ιφικρατης σκυτοτομου με. (Μatt. iii. 14). 6. Αλληλων τα βαρη βασταζετε, και μεν υἱος ην, ενδοξοτατος δε. Οὗτος είπε προς τινα των ούτως αναπληρώσατε τον νομον του Χριστοῦ. (Gal. vi. 2). 7. ευγενων το μεν εμον γενος απ' εμου αρχεται, το δε σον εν σοι Ἡ γαρ καυχησις ήμων αύτη εστι, το μαρτυριον της συνειδήσεως 17. Θαλης ερωτηθεις, τι κοινότατον; απεκρινατο ἡμων, ότι εν ἁπλοτητι και ειλικρινεια Θεου, ουκ εν σοφια σαρκική ελπις· και γαρ οἷς αλλο μηδεν, αὑτος παρεστιν. αλλ' εν χαριτι θεου, ανεστράφημεν εν τῷ κόσμῳ, περισσότερως δε αθος ἑκαστου τοιουτος ὁ βιος. 19. Φερεται ὁ Νειλος απο των προς ύμας. (2 Cor. 1, 12). 8. Ει τις ουν παράκλησις εν Χριστῳ, Αιθιοπικών όρων μέχρι της εις θαλασσαν εκβολης σταδια ζει τι παραμυθιον αγαπης, ει τις κοινωνια πνευματος, ει τινα 21. Εντευ. σπλαγχνα και οικτριμοι, πληρωσατε μου την χαραν, ἵνα το μυρια και δισχιλια. 20. Τα δις πεντε δεκα εστιν. θεν εξελαύνει σταθμους δυο, παρσσαγγας πεντε, επι τον Σαρον αυτό φρονητε, την αυτην αγαπην έχοντες, συμψυχοι, το ἑν φρονουντες, μηδεν κατα εριθειαν η κενοδοξίαν, αλλα τη ταπει ποταμον, οὗ ην ευρος τρια πλεθρα. νοφροσυνη αλληλους ἡγουμενοι ὑπερεχοντας έαυτων, μη τα ἑαυτῶν ἕκαστος σκοπούντες, αλλα και τα έτερων έκαστος. (Philippians ii. 1-4). παυεται. VOCABULARY. 18. Οἷον το 1. αξιος, α, ον, worth, worthy; πολλ. αξ, of great value. 2. Αννων, ωνος, ο, Hanno, the Carthaginian general. επερασε (from περας, beyond), transported, carried over; πεζων (from πεζος), of foot-soldiers; ἱππεις ἱππευς) horsemen, cavalry. 3. Σηρας (Σηρ, ος) the Seres, an Indian people who produced silk; ζην (infin. of ζαw, I live), to live; Χαλδαιους, the Chaldeans ; τα έκατον ετη, literally, above the hundred years ; so with either number the article is used when a whole is contenplated in construing into English you must drop the article in such cases : βιουν (from βιοω, I live, βιος, life), to live. 4. βιωσαι, to have lived; λεγεται, is said. 5. ετελεύτησε (from τελος, an end), came to an end, died; Ολυμπιας, αδος, ή, an Olympiad, a period of five years; the Greeks reckoned time by Olympiads as we date from the birth of Christ, A.D. : βιους, having lived; ετος έν, &c., one gear to eighty, that is 81 years. 6. ειπε, said ; Νερων, ωνος, δ, the Roman emperor Nero ; απειλεις (from απειλεω, I threaten), threatenest. 7. Σχολαστικός, ου, ό, an idler, a witling; απορων, being in straights ; επιπρασχε, sold. 8. ερωτηθείς (ερωταω, I ask), being asked, εφη, said, an swered. VOCABULARY. 1. Ιησους, Jesus ; ποιησατε (ποιεω, I make, do), make, cause to; αναπεσειν (πιπτω, I fall), to sit down; χορτος, ου, ο, grass, ανέπεσον, they sat down; τον αριθ, as to number, that is, in number, or to the number; ώσει, about. 2. των ακουσαν. (ακουω, I hear), of those who heard, επιστευ σαν πίστις, faith), believed; εγενήθη (γινομαι, I become), was, rose to. 3. ειδον (είδος, appearance, shape), I saw ; ηκουσα, I heard; αρνιον, ου, τo, lamb ; εσφαγομενον (σφάγιον, a victim). 4. Ο έχων νουν, let him who has mind; ψηφισάτω (ψηφος, a bean; the Greeks reckoned with beans, as the Latins did with pebbles, calculi, whence calculate), calculate. 5. διεκώλυε (κωλύω, I hinder), tried to hinder; βαπτισθηναι, to be baptized, βαπτω, I dip; ερχη, comest thou 6. βαστάζετε (βαστάζω, I carry), bear ; οὕτως, thus ; αναπλη. (ανα, up, προω, I fill), fill up, fulfil. 7. καυχησις, εως, ή, boasting; συνειδησις, εως, ή, conscience, απλότης, ητος, ή, simplicity; ειλικρίνεια, ας, ή, sincerity; σαρκικός (σαρξ, fesh), Heshly ; ανεστραφ. we have behaved (conducted) ourselves, we have acted; περισσοτερως (περι, denoting abundance), more exceedingly. 8. παράκλησις, εως, ή. exhortation, comfort; παραμυθιον, ου, το, solace, soothing ; κοινωνία, ας, ή, community ; πνευμα, ατος, spirit; σπλαγχνον, ου, το, δοκείς; οικτριμος, ου, o, pity; πληρώσατε (πληροω, I fill), fulfil; φρενητε (φρενες, the mind), that ye desire, aim at, love, συμψυχοι (ψυχη, the soul), being of the same soul, of one soul; ερίθεια, ας, ή, strife; κενοδοξία, (κενος, empty), vainglory; ταπεινοφροσύνη, ης, ή (ταπεινος, humble), lowliness of mind ; ἡγουμενοι, thinking, considering; ὑπερεχειν, to be superior ; σκοπουντες (σκοπειν, to look, hence επισκόπειν, to overlook, whence our word bishop). REMARKS. The pronouns are among the oldest words in every language. Consequently, if in two languages the pronouns are found to have strong marks of resemblance, we may safely conclude that those two languages are akin to each other. Such marks of resemblance may be found by comparing the Greek and the Anstatt, or statt, English personal pronouns together. Thus the Greek yw, Diesseit, or dies- Similar remarks may be made with regard to the numerals.Innerhalb, Obviously in structure, as well as in individual numbers, the Jenfeit, or jenGreek numeral system is the same as our own, seits, The student, if he has well attended to these lessons, may tange, (also now rejoice in having made some considerable progress; and the progress he has made he may in a measure estimate by the comparative ease with which he has just read passages from the Greek New Testament. General View of what has been set forth. Noun Substantive used to name objects, as, orpaTITNS, soldier (a soldier). Artich used to determine nouns, as ò σrpariwrns, the soldier. Aus, Kraft, within; inside. from. gov. Dat.) Laut, $ 111. PREPOSITIONS CONSTRUED WITH THE DATIVE. out; out of. without; outside cording to. next; next to. Bei, by; near; with. Nebft, together with. These prepositions govern either the accusative or the dative; but not without a difference of signification: for, when motion towards, that is, motion from one point to another, is indicated, the accusative is required: when, however, motion or rest in any given place or condition is signified, the dative is used; thus, der Knabe läuft in den Garten, the boy runs into (motion towards) the garden; der Knabe läuft in dem Garten, the boy runs in (motion within) the garden. This is the general principle ; which will be found, with more or less distinctness, everywhere to prevail in the use of the prepositions of this class. S 117. THE CONJUNCTIONS. (1) Conjunctions are words used in connecting sentences. As, however, there are various kinds of connections existing. among sentences, it has been customary to classify the conjunc-. tions according to the nature of the connection which they are employed to indicate. Hence we have (among other classes) the following: Copulatives: Causals: as, und, and; auch, also, as, entweder, either; ober, or. as, aber, but; however; allein, but; doch, yet. as, weber, neither; noch, nor. as, wie, as; so, so; thus; als, than; gleichwie, just as. as, wenn, if; falls, in case that; mofern, provided that. as, denn, for; weil, since, because. Conclusives: Concessives: Finals: as, barum, therefore; daher, hence; deßhalb, there- as, obwohl, obschon, obgleich, wenn; although. zu, in order to. (2) We give below a list of the conjunctions that most commonly occur in German: premising only that some of the words here set down as conjunctions are also employed as adverbs; for it will of course be kept in mind, that the office performed by a word determines its name and character. For numerous examples illustrating their uses, see Sect. C. Auch, also, ever. Auf daß, in order that. Bis, until. Da, since. Daher, therefore; hence. Denn, for; because; than. count. Defto, the (Sect. 31. 6). Ehe, before that; 'ere. Falls, in case that. Folglich, consequently. Je, befto, the-the (S. 31. 6). Ob, whether; if. Obgleich, though; although. Ohne, without; except. Ungeachtet, notwithstanding. Wenn, if; as. Wofern, if; in case that. LESSONS IN CHEMISTRY.-No. XVI. which yield yellow or white precipitates with hydrosulphuric HAVING finished our preliminary consideration of the metals acid, or hydrosulphate of ammonia, I purpose now leaving the metals for a time, and discussing the chemical properties of certain non-metallic elements. Oxygen shall be the subject of discussion and experiment in the present lesson. When I inform you that oxygen constitutes, at least, threefourths of the crust of the globe and its living inhabitants, you will admit that it must be an important element. Oxygen, by combination with other bodies, may assume the condition of solid, liquid, or gas, but obtained separately, it is always gaseous; therefore we shall have to obtain it and examine it under the form of oxygen gas. There are several methods of generating oxygen gas, but only one capable of being followed by a student who is unsupplied with special instruments. This process I shall describe with a view to its adoption; the others I shall afterwards mention, with the object of making their theory understood. First, let us begin by dea ribing the instruments necessary, You will require either a large test tube, about half or threequarters of an inch in diameter, made by preference of German glass, as being more infusible than our own; a bent glass tube, and a pneumatic trough, or its substitute, and a receiver. You will require, in point of fact, an arrangement like the following: or such a substitute for it as your ingenuity, stimulated by your necessities, will easily supply. I need scarcely indicate that your distillatory apparatus being small (ie, the test tube), your receiving bottle must be small also. In the present case, ounce or ounce-and-a-half phials will be of sufficient dimensions. Scarcely more necessary is it to remark, that the distillatory apparatus, as indicated above, will require some sort of support not represented in the diagram, and that the regular pneumatic trough may be dispensed with, by using a basin instead, the receiving bottle being prevented slipping by means of some heavy material, such as lead, brick, &c., placed in the basin, and indicated by the letter в in our sketch. So much then for the apparatus. Here we close our Lessons in German in these pages. But we beg to inform our readers that a continuation of themcomprising a Syntax of the Language, at once popular and complete-may be found in CASSELL'S LESSONS IN GERMAN, Part II.; a publication which also contains all the lessons upon Systematic Grammar which have appeared in the POPULAR EDUCATOR; that is to say, those from No. XLIX. to the present. The substance we shall require as the oxygen-yielding material, is a mixture of two parts by weight of the salt termed chlorate of potash, and one part by weight of peroxide (black oxide) of manganese; the substance procurable in commercial circles, under the simple name "manganese." If the student should by chance live in a remote place, where old chemical terms still dominate, the druggist will inform him that he does not keep such a material as chlorate of potash; if the student ask for it under the name of oxymuriate of potash, he will be more successful. The mixture of chlorate of potash and black oxide of manganese should be effected, if possible, by rubbing the two together in a mortar; mere incorporation, however, with the blade of a knife will answer sufficiently well. You will not do amiss by preparing at least an ounce of this mixture, and preserving it properly labelled in a bottle. The operation of generating oxygen will frequently be required in the course of future experiments, and students who do not possess a gasometer must prepare the gas little by little as it may be required. (1.) Having uncovered a bottle full of the gas, pour into it a little transparent lime-water, and agitate; not the slightest change results. (2.) Immerse in another bottle a slip of moistened litmus paper, and another of moistened turmeric paper; not the slightest discoloration of either slip takes place, thus demonstrating that oxygen gas is neither acid nor alkaline. (3.) Take a splinter of wood, such as a bit of lath, or a long brimstone match, ignite the end, wait for a few seconds until an incandescent coal has formed; blow out the flame and plunge the glowing though not flaming extremity into a bottle of oxygen gas. Immediately the wood bursts into flame, thus indicating the presence of a gas different from any already that oxygen gas is a supporter-a very powerful supporter—of combustion. It is moreover proved by the same experiment that oxygen gas is not a combustible, because, although causing the stick to burst into flame, itself does not. Remember how diametrically opposed these qualities are to those of hydrogen. If the mouth of the receiving bottle be large enough, the preceding arrangement may be varied as follows. Pour about a tea-spoonful of the mixture into the test tube, replace the cork, arrange the apparatus, and apply heat. Oxy-noticed in these lessons. It is thus proved by this experiment gen gas will come over rapidly, but the first portions being necessarily contaminated with atmospheric air previously existing in the apparatus, must be thrown away; all subsequently collected is pure oxygen gas. Collect six or seven bottles full of it, and before proceeding to try any experiments, follow me in discussing the theory of its production, and the nature of gases generally. What, then, is a gas? I know of no definition which is logically distinctive. The definition long received was, "a permanently elastic fluid," but it is incorrect. Nevertheless, the expression permanently elastic fluid, although not sufficiently general in its significance to comprehend all gases, indicates the most salient property of so many, and applies so perfectly to the gas under consideration, that we may profitably discuss its meaning. I have therefore to inform you that oxygen gas is permanently elastic; that is to say, neither cold nor pressure, nor both combined, nor, in short, any other agency, has yet succeeded in condensing oxygen gas into a liquid or a solid condition. Now many gases equally transparent and colourless as oxygen have been condensed into liquids, and even solids. I dare say, most people have observed the bubbles which escape from ginger-beer, soda-water, champagne, &c. These bubbles are due to the presence of a transparent, colourless gas, named, carbonic-acid; it has not come under our notice yet, but it speedily will. By the application of intense cold and pressure, this gas may be converted into a solid, having the aspect of snow. A similar result has been accomplished in the instance of many other gases; therefore, it follows that the neatly turned definition, formerly accepted as characteristic of gases, is no longer admissible. Oxygen gas, however, has resisted every attempt at liquefaction or solidification; yet analogy leads us to suppose that, if we could apply sufficient cold and sufficient pressure, a similar result would ensue. Abandoning all logical definition of a gas as hopeless, it is still in our power to entertain a good, general appreciation of the leading characteristic of gases, by remembering that persistent elasticity, under common circumstances, is the special feature by which they are contradistinguished from vapours; the latter being readily condensed. For example, steam, or aqueous vapour, is the result of the application of heat to water. We all know that steam is elastic, or else what would be the use of expansion gear in a steam engine? But it is not permanently elastic under ordinary circumstances, for immediately on coming into contact with the air, or any material sufficiently cold, it condenses into water. When thus condensed, it fills a position analogous with a liquefied gas; and when, on the further application of cold, ice results, we have a condition analogous to that of a solidified gas. Perhaps some such question as this occurs to you. How am I to reconcile the apparently incongruous statements that oxygen can only be procured as a gas, and that three-fourths of the material elements of our globe are composed of it? There is no contradiction involved in these statements; as a constituent of the solid and liquid matters of the globe, oxygen is combined, and chemical combination, you are well aware, produces wonderful changes. Both clay and flint contain a vast amount of oxygen, the latter nearly fifty per cent; but the oxygen existing in combination, its solidity is attributable to that circumstance. Experiments with Oxygen Gas.—Proceeding to examine systematically the properties of oxygen gas, attend to the following directions. (4.) Perform the following comparative experiment: take two bottles full of oxygen, and open them. Place one to stand during a few seconds open upon a table-mouth upwards of course. Hold the other for a similar period open, and inverted, as represented in the diagram; finally, by means of an ignited stick, test either bottle for the presence of oxygen. The upright bottle will be found still to contain it; from the other it will have departed; thus we prove that oxygen gas is specifically heavier than the atmosphere. Nevertheless, it is only heavier by a very slight amount; calling atmospheric air one or unity, the specific gravity is one and onetenth and a little more-how much this "little more may be, chemists are not agreed upon. The experiments just performed-indeed one of them, the flame-ignition of the wood, or taper-are sufficient to distinguish oxygen gas from all other gases, save one, the protoxide of nitrogen, or “laughing gas. laughing gas." By observing the character of flame produced, we may, without further trials, distinguish between these two. Oxygen gas yields a flame of exquisite purity, without any halo surrounding it; a reddish halo, however, envelopes the flame which is generated under similar treatment in protoxide of nitrogen, or laughing gas. Moreover, oxygen gas is devoid of taste, whereas, protoxide of nitrogen is perceptibly sweet. Although we have succeeded in finding the characteristics which distinguish oxygen from all other gases, it is far too important an element to be discussed in this one lesson. In my next I shall describe another series of experiments, having for its object the teaching of the various relations of oxygen to other bodies. This lesson I shall terminate with an examination of the changes which ensue in the mixture of oxide of manganese and chlorate of potash, as causes, concomitants, or results of the evolution of oxygen gas. 5. From 4. From subtract Ans. 4 3 12 6. From by-dy+bm my am+m-d2+d dm 7. From subtract 8. From subtract 4 h+d 139. To subtract an integer from a fraction, or a fraction from an integer. 138. Fractions may also be subtracted, like integers, by First, then, let me remark, that although peroxide of man-setting them down, when the sign of the subtrahend is ganese contains, as its name indicates, a great deal of oxygen; changed, one after the other, without reducing them to a although it is frequently employed alone as an oxygen-yielding common denominator. material; yet, used as we have used it in combination with chlorate of potash, it does not undergo the slightest change. There are some instances of chemical decomposition determined or aided by mere contact with a body that undergoes no change in itself. Chemists designate this sort of action catalytic;" they might as well term it "incomprehensible" at once. However, not to weary you with mere names, remember that the oxide of manganese determines, we know not why or how, an evolution of oxygen gas from chlorate of potash at a much lower temperature than would otherwise be necessary. Chlorate of potash, if heated alone, evolves all its oxygen, provided the temperature to which it is exposed be sufficiently high : but it is almost too high for glass to bear; hence, the auvantage of mixing the chlorate with oxide of manganese. In the following diagram I shall leave out the oxide of manganese altogether. |