it was, without being pointed, it might be translated either "Thou shalt go, and shalt never return, thou shalt perish in battle," or "Thou shalt go and shalt return, thou shalt never perish in battle.” The correct translation depends on the placing of a comma after the word nunquam, or after redibis. The invention of the modern system of punctuation has been attributed to the Alexandrian grammarian Aristophanes, after whom it was improved by succeeding grammarians; but it was so entirely lost in the time of Charlemagne, that he found it necessary to have it restored by Warnefried and Alcuin. It consisted at first of only one point, used in three ways, and sometimes of a stroke, formed in several ways. But as no particular rules were followed in the use of these signs, punctuation was exceedingly uncertain, until the end of the fifteenth century, when the learned Venetian printers, the Manutii, increased the number of the signs, and established some fixed rules for their application. These were so generally adopted, that we may consider them as the inventors of the present method of punctuation; and although modern grammarians have introduced some improvements, nothing but a few particular rules have been added since their time. The design of the system referred to was purely grammatical, and had no further reference to enunciation, than to remove ambiguity in the meaning and to give precision to the sentence. This, therefore, is the object of punctuation, and although the marks employed in written language may sometimes denote the different pauses and tones of voice which the sense and accurate pronunciation require, yet they are more generally designed to mark the grammatical divisions of a sentence, and to show the dependence and relation of words and members which are separated by the intervening clauses. The teacher, therefore, who directs his pupils to “mind their pauses in reading," gives but an unintelligible direction to those who are unversed in the rules of analysis. A better direction would be to disregard the pauses, and endeavour to read the sentence with just such pauses and tones as they would employ if the sentence were their own, and they were uttering it in common conversation. Indeed it is often the case that correct and tasteful reading requires pauses, and these too of a considerable length, to be made, where such pauses are indicated in written language by no mark whatIt is not unfrequently the case that the sense will allow no pause whatever to be made in cases where, if the marks alone were observed, it would seem that a pause of considerable length is required. The pupil, therefore, who has been taught to mind his pauses, must first be taught to unlearn this direction and endeavour to understand the sentence which he is to read, before he attempts to enunciate it. ever. * LESSONS IN READING AND ELOCUTION.—No. I. PUNCTUATION. PUNCTUATION is peculiar to the modern languages of Europe. It was wholly unknown to the Greeks and Romans; and the languages of the East, although they have certain marks or signs to indicate tones, have no regular system of punctuation. The Romans and the Greeks also, it is true, had certain points, which, like those of the languages of the East, were confined to the delivery and prounciation of words; but the pauses were indicated by breaking up the written matter into lines or paragraphs, not by marks resembling those in the modern system of punctuation. Hence, in the responses of the ancient oracles, which were generally written down by the priests and delivered to the inquirers, the ambiguity-doubtless intentional -which the want of punctuation caused, saved the credit of the oracle, whether the expected event was favourable or unfavourable. As an instance of this kind, may be cited that remarkable response which was given on a well-known occasion when the oracle was consulted with regard to the success of a certain military expedition. "Ibis et redibis nunquam peribis in bello." Written, as The Diæresis, The Crotchets, The Brackets, The Cedilla, The Asterisk, The Section, The Paragraph, The Parallels, These characters, when judiciously employed, fix the meaning and give precision to the signification of sentences, which, in a written form, would be ambiguous or indefinite without them. Thus, "I said that he is dishonest it is true and I am sorry for it." Now the meaning of this sentence can be ascertained only by a correct punctuation. If it be punctuated as follows: "I said that he is dishonest, it is true, and I am sorry for it;" the meaning will be, that it is true that I said he was dishonest, and I am sorry that I said so. But if it be punctuated thus, "I said that he was Written here, of course, includes printed language. dishonest; it is true; and I am sorry for it;" the meaning will Again, the following sentence, as here punctuated, is an innocent sound of the vowel, is called the Macron, from the Greek, signifying long. The mark called a Breve, indicating the short sound of the vowel, is from the Latin, signifying short. The word Ellipsis, also from the Greek, means an omission, and properly refers to the words, the members, or the sentences which are omitted, and not to the marks which indicate the omission. A further instance of the importance of correct punctuation was The word Apostrophe, also from the Greek, signifies the turning away, or the omission of one letter or more. The word apostrophe, as here used, must not be confounded with the same word as the name of a rhetorical figure. The word Diaresis is also from the Greek, and signifies the taking apart, or the separation of the vowels, which would other The term Accent is derived from the Latin language, and implies the tone of the voice with which a word or syllable is to be pronounced. But although the meaning of a sentence is thus materially af- The nature of the marks used in written language may also be The word Colon is from the Greek, and signifies a member of a The word Period is derived from the Greek, and means a ci., or well-rounded sentence. Hence, when the circuit of the s completed, with all its relations, the mark bearing this name used to denote this completion. The word Interrogation is derived from the Latin, and meane a question. Hence, the mark so called is put at the end of a question. The word Exclamation is from the same language, and means a passionate utterance. Hence, the mark so called is put at the end of such utterances. The word Parenthesis is derived from the Greek language, and means an insertion. A sentence, clause, or phrase, inserted between the parts of another sentence for the purpose of explanation, or of calling particular attention, is properly called a parenthesis. The word Section, derived also from the Latin, signifies a cutting, or a division. The character which denotes a section seems to be composed of ss, and to be an abbreviation of the words signum sectionis, or the sign of a section. This character, which was formerly used as the sign of the division of a discourse, is now rarely used except as a reference to a note at the bottom of the page. The word Paragraph is derived from the Greek language, and signifies a writing in the margin. This mark, like that of the section, was formerly used to designate those divisions of a section which are now indicated by unfinished lines or blank spaces. This mark, as well as the section, is now rarely used except as a reference. It may further be remarked, that notes at the bottom of the page, on the margin, or at the end of the book, are often indicated by figures, or by letters, instead of the marks which have already been enumerated. The word Caret is from the Latin, and signifies it is wanting. This mark is used only in manuscripts. The Cedilla is a mark placed under the letters c and g to indicate the soft sound of those letters. The Asterisk, Obelisk, Double Obelisk, and Parallels, with the section and paragraph, are merely arbitrary marks to call attention to the notes at the bottom of the page. As these marks which have now been enumerated all have a meaning, and are employed for some special purpose, it is recommended to the student never to pass by them without being assured that he understands what that purpose is. Correct and tasteful reading can never be attained without a full appreciation of the meaning which the author intended to convey; and that meaning is often to be ascertained by the arbitrary marks employed by him for the purpose of giving definiteness to an expression. At the same time the student should consider these marks as his guide to Correct the meaning only, not to the enunciation of a sentence. delivery must be left to the guidance of taste and judgment otherwise acquired. In many excellent selections for lessons in reading, the pieces have been arranged in regular order, according to the nature of their respective subjects, under the heads of Narrative, Descriptive, Didactic, Argumentative, and Pathetic pieces, Public Speeches, Promiscuous pieces, the Eloquence of the Bar, of the Pulpit and of the Forum. By Narrative pieces is meant those pieces only which contain a simple narration or story. Descriptive pieces are those in which something is described, chiefly from nature. Didactic pieces are those designed to convey some particular kind of instruction, whether moral, religious or scientific. Argumentative pieces are those in which some truth is designed to be proved in an agreeable manner. Pathetic pieces are those by which the feelings of pity, love, admiration and other passions, are excited. Promiscuous pieces are those which do not fall exclusively under any of the classes which have been enumerated, or which consist of a mixture of those classes. The Eloquence of the Bar consists of speeches (or pleas as they are technically called) made by distinThe word Hyphen is derived from the Greek language, and sig-guished lawyers in the courts of justice in favour of or against a nifies under one, that is, together; and is used to imply that the letters or syllables between which it is placed are to be taken together as one word. It is to be remarked, however, that the name parenthesis belongs only to the sentence inserted between brackets or crotchets, and not to those marks themselves. supposed criminal. The eloquence of the Pulpit consists of sermons or discourses delivered on religious occasions. The Elequence of the Forum consists in the speeches, addresses, orations, The hyphen, when placed over a vowel, to indicate the long | &c., addressed to political or promiscuous assemblies. To many, this information may seem superfluous or puerile. But ast hese lessons are designed for the young and the unlearned, it must not be forgotten that their sources of information are few and that they will not always take the pains to inform themselves of the meaning of words, even when they are familiar to their eyes in capital letters, and in the running titles of the books before them every day. It is often the case that the teacher also, taking for granted that his pupils are familiar with the meaning of words se often presented to their eyes, neglects to question them on the subject; and in riper years it becomes a matter of surprise to the pupil himself that, in early life, words which he had heard sounded almost every day at school presented no idea to his mind beyond that of an unmeaning, or rather an unintelligible sound. Yard, brác-cio, m. (pl. le brác- Taffeta, taf-fe-tù, :n. Some of which you wanted, Cambric, té-la ba-ti-sta, f. A Pound, líb-bra, f. Fig, fi-co, m. (pl. fi-chi) The object of all education is not so much to fill the mind with knowledge as to strengthen its powers, and enlarge its capacity. Those exercises, therefore, are always most beneficial in education, which tend most effectually to produce this result: There is, perhaps, no branch of study connected with popular education, which, when properly pursued, is more highly subservient to this end than the The use of this particle frequently coincides with the use of study of correct and tasteful reading, as an art. It necessarily the preposition to in English grammar. Generally speaking, involves a complete knowledge of the subject to be read, the rela- any kind of direction, expressed by a verb, to or towards a pertion and dependencies of the phrases, clauses and members of the son or thing, is denoted by this word. The ideas of similarity sentences, the proper meaning of the words employed, and the or resemblance, of approaching or approximation, of a direction or connexion between the sentences themselves. This cannot be mere reference to any thing, end, aim, or point of time, form, acquired without a vigorous employment of the perceptive powers, as it were, only parts or branches of this fundamental significaaided by those of comparison, of analysis, of reasoning, of judg-tion of the particle a, and whenever the action of the subject of ment, of taste, and of discrimination. Subordinate and auxiliary a sentence (i. e. of the nominative) expresses such direction or to the acquisition of this important art, the student is recommended approach to or towards persons or things, a must be placed to exercise also the power of classification, while studying a read- | before them; e. g. ac-cô-sta-ti ál-la tá-vo-la, approach thyself ing lesson (which should always be studied previous to practising to the table; al-cá-ne dá-te gli ós-si, give the bones to the dog; it), to ascertain under which of the above mentioned classes, il fi-glio ras-so-mí-glia al pá-dre, the son is like the father; ne whether narrative, descriptive, didactic, &c., the piece he is about par-ie-rò al cu-gi-no, I shail speak of it to the cousin; al cánto read belongs. The student who thus employs his faculties cannot to si ri-co-nó-sce l' uc-cêl-lo, by the song one knows the bird; fail to feel a vigorous growth of intellect springing up in his own la-vá-ro non pên-sa che al da-ná-ro, the avaricious man only mind, and will be amply compensated for his labour, by a com- thinks of money; i-o lo dis-si al a-mi-co vô-stro, I told it your mand over the stores of literature not to be gained by any other friend; é-gli lo diê-de a' pô-ve-ri, he gave it to the poor; -o vá-do a Ró-ma, I go to Rome; non cre-dé-te a ló-ro, do not believe them; dis-si a lui, an-dá-te a cá-sa, I told him, go home (i. e. to the house); pic-chiá-re ál-la pôr-ta, to knock at the door; scri-ve-re a qual-che-dú-no, to write to somebody; aggiu-ghe-re ủ-na cô và an un at-tra, to add one thing to another; cê-de-re sú-o di-rít-to a qual-che-dú-no, to transmit or cede one's right to any one; co-strín-ge-re ú-no ad ú-na a-zió-ne, to compel or force any one to some action; ver-rò a mêz-zo giór-no, a mézza nôt-te, ál-le dú-e, al têm-po fis-sá-to, al prí‐mo del mé-se, I shall come at noon, at midnight, at two o'clock, at the appointed time, on the first of the month. method. LESSONS IN ITALIAN GRAMMAR.-No. XVI. Of the University of Pavia, and Professor of the Italian and German Time, têm-po, m. VOCABULARY. Present, a-dês-so (adv. now) Best, mi-glió-re He had hidden himself, é-gli si ê-ra na-scó-sto Room, stán-za (or cá-me-ra) Bridge, pón-te, m. Yours, vô-stro, in., Đô-stra, f. Has only, ha so-la-mén-te One, ú-no, m., ú-na, f. Wood, lé-gno, m. Edward, E-du-ár-do Has received, ha ri-ce-vú-to Watch, o-ro-bô-gio (o-ra-tô- to) Shoe-buckle, fib-bia, f. Steel, ac-ciá-jo, s. m. Once, ú-na vôl-ta Use, ú-so, m. Copper, rá-me, m. Phrases, not literally or strictly expressing an abode, residence, stay, continuance, or being in a place, but merely Has been prohibited, è sti-to nearness or presence, require the particle a and not in, which pro-i-bi-to Sweden, Svê-zia Shambles, bec-che-rí-a, (slaughter-house) Are for sale, si trô-va Meat, cár-ne, f. Young ox, min-20, m. always denotes a real and not merely imaginary continuance or being in (i. e. in the interior of) a place or thing, or some action taking place in it; e. g. é-gli è al bál-lo, he is at the ball; jesti-no, at the (dancing and gaming) evening party; a tádao-ia, at table; al con-cêr-to, in the concert; a giuo-cá-re, at play or game; a stu-diá-re, (engaged) in study. Wether, ca-stró-ne, m. (meat It is, és-so è Good, buô-no, m., buônna, f. Whom you see, che ve-dé-te P what has been explained, it is obvious that in those phrases which merely denote the moving, approaching, or tendency to or towards a place or thing, and not strictly the entering or penetrating into it, a and not in must be used; for in means the actual motion or penetration into the interior of any locality; e. g. í-o vá-do al bál-lo, I go to the ball; a távola, to table; a cé-na, to supper; a im-pa-rú-re, to learn, i. e. ́ to (the pursuit of) learning; a giuo-cá-re, to play, i. e. to (the diversion of) playing. The proper nouns of towns, cities, boroughs, or similar localities, are an exception to the last-mentioned rule, for it is quite allowable indiscriminately to place a or in before thei whenever the abode, residence, stay, arrival, continuance, or being in or within them (i. e. in their interior) is to be designated; e. g. é-gli è a or in Ná-po-li, he is at or in Naples; tro-ván-do-si é-glí ú-na vôl-ta a Pa-rí-gı, being once in Paris; él-la è ar-ri-vá-ta a or in Var-sá-via, she is arrived in Warsaw. The verbs par-ti-re, to depart, set out or off, and con-ti-nud-re, to continue, proceed on (one's journey), are another exception, for they require the preposition per before the name of that locality or even country, towards which a journey or 1 any motion is directed; e. g. é-gli è par-tí-to per Co-stan-ti-nô- | for life to the galleys; ês-s-re sen-sí-bi-le a quál-che cô-sa, to feel po-li, per Pie-tro-búr-go, per la Švíz-ze-ra, he has started for compassion for (or to be susceptible of) something: by the Constantinople, for St. Petersburgh, for Switzerland; con-ti- preposition by; e. g. to fa-rái a fôr-za, thou wilt do it by connu-á-re il sú-o viág-gio per la Po-lô-nia, per Mó-sca, to proceed on straint: by the preposition of; e. g. chiê-de-re ad al-cú-no, to one's journey to Poland, to Moscow. desire or require of somebody: by the word as; e. g. mêt-tersi a sér-vo con al-cu-no, to engage one's self to somebody as a Next to di, the particle a is of the most extensive use, and servant; a-vé-re a si-gnó-re, to have as a master: by at a time; though the relations in which this word stands to others are e. g. a dú-e a dú-e, two at a time, two and two: by adverbial not quite so loose and vague as those of de, they are various expressions or phrases; e. g. a buon mer-cd-to, at a small price, enough to admit of modes of application which, even in cheap; ál-la sca-pe-strá-ta, licentiously, dissolutely; dl-la pêgItalian, might sometimes be more suitably dispensed with by gio, as bad as possible; ál-la rin-fu-sa, confusedly, promiscuthe use of prepositions of a more logical distinctness, and conse-ously; a mén-te, a me-mo-ria, by heart (to learn or know); a quently a greater clearness in special instances; e. g. mon-tá- bóc-ca, by word of mouth; ve-ni-re ál-le má-ni, to come to blows re a ca-vál-lo (for só-pra un ca-vál-lo), to get or mount on horse- or to engage in close fight; an-dá-re a spás-so, a di-pôr-to, to back; í-vi a pô-chi giór-ni ri-tor-nò (for dó-po pô-chi giór-ni), he take a walk; a quat-tro oc-chi, a tê-sta a tê-sta, in private, alone returned a few days after; fá-re a vo-lon-tà di cia-scú-no (for together (i. e. between four eyes, tête-à-tête);` a_ba-stán-za» se-cón-do la vo-lon-tà), to act according to, or to conform to the enough; a má-no, at hand, near at hand, in readiness; with will of everybody; bat-té-an-si a pál-me (for cól-le pál-me), they or by the hand; artificially; by election; underhand, by fraud fought with the palms of their hands; lè rot-tú-re fu-ro-no murá-te a piê-tra e a cal-ci-na (for con piê-tra e con cal-ci-na), the breaches were walled up with stone and lime; ncn ci con-verrà com-bát-te-re a sì pó-ca gên-te (for cón-tra si pô-ca gén-te), it will not become us to fight against so few; mól-ti fán-no bê-ne a spe-rán-za di gua-da-gno (for per i-spe-rán-za), many are honest through the hope of profit, &c. or deceit. I have already stated that to avoid hiatus by a succession of vowels, generally ad, in the place of a, is used before a vowel, and I shall conclude this explanation of the uses of a by the remark that, in Italian classics, not a few passages, where at first sight the particle a appears to be a somewhat arbitrary substitute for other prepositions or words, without any change of construction, will admit of a perfect elucidation by ellipsis. Other uses, and some omissions of the particle a, will be commented on hereafter. If LESSONS IN GEOMETRY. NO. XXV. (Continued from p. 196.) BOOK I.-PROPOSITION XXI.-THEOREM. from the ends of one side of a triangle, there be drawn two straight lines to a point within the triangle, these together shalı be less than the other two sides of the triangle, but shall contain a greater angle. In fig. 21, let A B C be a triangle, and from the points в and c, the ends of the side B c, let the two straight lines BD and CD be drawn to the point D within the triangle. Then B D and DC together shall be less than the other two sides B A and A C of the triangle ABC, but shall contain an angle BDC greater than the angle BA C. It is obvious that this variety of the significations of a will, for the purpose of translating it into English, require the use of many prepositions or other words, and sometimes even of adverbial expressions or phrases, which only practice and a patient method of reading good writers, by accurately comparing the idioms and genius of the two languages, fully can teach. In a course of merely elementary lessons, I must naturally restrict myself to some, I think, useful hints in the following illustrations:-The particle a may be translated by the objective case (without any preposition); e. g. fá-re xe để rè ad củ của nó ủng cô-sa, to let any one see something; do-man-dá-re ad al-cu-no, to ask one; toc-cá-re ad al-cú-no, to concern one; so-prav-ví-ve-re ad al-cú-no, to survive one; sup-plí-re a quál-che cô-sa, to complete or make up something: by the preposition to; e. g. ap-pli-car-si ad ú-na cô-sa, to apply one's self to something; vôl-ger-si ad al-cúno, to turn to somebody; a si-ní-stra, á mán-ca, to the left; a dé-stra, to the right; an-dá-re, ve-ní-re a un luô-go, to go, come to a place; do-lén-te a môr-te, grieved to death; passá-re a fil di spá-da, to be put to the sword (i. e. to the edge of the sword): by the preposition at ; e. g. al le-vár del só-le, at sun-rise; al primo cen-no, at the first hint or sign; a mi-o sénso, to my mind, liking, taste, fancy, will; se-dé-re a tá-vo-la, to sit at table; ês-se-re (stá-re, tro-vár-si) a un luô-go, to be at a place: by the preposition on or upon; e. g. a pé-na di môr-te, upon (or under) pain of death; af-fi-dár-si ad al-cu-no, to reckon or build upon one; ap-po-giár-si a qual-che cô-sa, to lean, rest, or to rely on something; in-si-ste-re a qual-che cô-sa, to insist on something; a piê-di, a ca-vál-lo, on foot, on horseback; a con-di-zió-ne, on condition; ad im-prê-sti-to, on trust or credit: by the preposition in; e. g. a du-e mé-si, in two months; al-la sfug-gi-ta, in passing by or in flight; di-pin-ge-re a 6-glio, to paint in oil; ve-stí-to a bien-co, dressed in white; dl-la fran-cése, all' in gle-se, in the French, English manner or fashion; dire all' o-réc-chio, to say or whisper in any one's ear; a têm-po, in time, in the nick of time; ve-ni-re a grán-di schiê-re, to come in great crowds or masses: by the preposition according to (or after); e. g. a ma-niê-ra, after the manner or fashion; a c-chio, Again, the exterior angle B D C of the triangle o D E is greater according to a measure taken merely by the eye; a vo-lon-tà di than its interior and opposite angle CBD (I. 16). And the cia-sche-dú-no, according to the will or liking of everybody: by exterior angle CEB of the triangle ABB is greater than its the prepositions against or towards; e. g. ri-bel-lár-si ad al-cu- interior and opposite angle BAC (I. 16). But the angle BDC is Much more, therefore, is the 20, to rebel or mutiny against somebody; all' o-riên-te, all' oc- greater than the angle CE B. ci-dên-te, towards the east, west: by the preposition with; e gangle BDC greater than the angle BAC. Wherefore, if from a tre cól-pi l' uc cí-se, he killed him with three blows; an-dá-re the ends of, &c. Q. E. D. A D Ε Produce BD to E. Then, the two sides B A and AE, of the triangle ABE are greater than the third Fig. 21. side EE (1. 20). To each of these unequals add Ec, and the two sides BA and AC are greater (As. 4) than BE and EC. Again, the two sides CE and ED of the triangle CED are greater (I. 20) than the third side cD. To each of these unequals, fran-ce-add DB, and the two sides c E and EB are add DB, and the two sides c E and EB are has been shown that BA and A c are greater than BE and E C. greater (Ax. 4) than CD and D B. Much more then are BA and A c, greater than BD and DC. But it B a grán-dí pás-si, to walk with long or great steps; stä-re a bóc- Scholium. 1.-Respecting this proposition, Dr. Simson ca a-për-ta, a ôo-chi a-pêr-ti, a brác-cia a-pêr-te, à cá-po chí-no, a makes the following observation: "Mons. Clairault, in the chiô-me sciôl-te, to stand with an open or gaping mouth, with preface to his Elements of Geometry, published in French at open arms, with the head inclined, with dishevelled hair; a bri-Paris, anno 1741, says that Euclid has been at the pains to glia sciôl-ta, with slackened reins, at full speed or gallop; cor- prove that the two sides of a triangle which is included within ri-spón-de-re ad al-cu-no, to agree with somebody; u-ni-to ad al-another, are together less than the two sides of the triangle. cú-no, united with somebody; pa-ra-go-ná-re ú-na cô-sa a quál- which includes it:' but he has forgot to add this condition, che os-sa, to compare one thing with another: by the preposi- viz. that the triangles must be upon the same base: because tion for; e. g. con-dan-ná-to a ví-ta ál-le ga-lê-re, condemned unless this be added, the sides of the included triangle may be |