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ON PHYSICS, OR NATURAL PHILOSOPHY.

No. XX,

(Continued from page 280).

Laws of the Mixture of Gases and Liquids.-Water and several other liquids possess the property of absorbing gases; but under the same conditions of temperature and pressure, the same liquid does not absorb equal quantities of different gases. For instance: at an ordinary temperature and pressure, water absorbs 025 or one-fortieth of its volume of nitrogen, •046 or about one-twenty-second part of its volume of oxygen, a volume equal to its own of carbonic acid, and 430 times its volume of ammonia. Mercury appears incapable of absorbing gases. It has been proved experimentally that the mixture of ases and liquids takes place according to the three follow ing laws:

1st, The weight of a gas absorbed by a liquid at a given temperature is proportional to the pressure; or, the density of the gas absorbed is in a constant ratio to that of the same gas not absorbed.

2nd. The quantity of a gas absorbed increases as the temperature diminishes; that is, as the elastic force of the gas diminishes.

3rd. The quantity of a gas absorbed by a liquid, is independent of the nature and quantity of other gases which the liquid may hold in solution.

Thus, if in place of a single elastic fluid, the atmosphere above a liquid contains several elastic fluids, it is ascertained that each of these gases, whatever may be their number, is absorbed in the same proportion as if it were single, the pressure which is proper to it being taken into consideration. For example: oxygen forming only about part of the

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the pressure is constant on all the points of each horizontal stratum; neither can it exist unless the density be the same everywhere in the stratum; otherwise, the lighter particles would rise in the fluid mass, like floating bodies, and the more Fig. 90

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air, water in an ordinary state absorbs precisely the same dense particles would sink in the same. Now, gases and quantity of oxygen as if the atmosphere were entirely com-liquids being very liable to expansion under the action of heat, posed of this gas, under a pressure equal to part of that of the density diminishes when the temperature increases. the atmosphere. According to the first law, when the pres- Consequently, in order that a fluid mass may remain in equisure diminishes, the quantity of gas absorbed must decrease. librium, it is necessary that the temperature should be the This fact is verified by placing a gaseous solution under the same at all the points of every horizontal stratum of the receiver of an air-pump, and forming a vacuum; the gas is observed to act by its expansive force, and to disengage itself from the liquid in bubbles. The same effect is produced by

VOL. IV.

mass.

Moreover, in order that the equilibrium may be stable, the fluid strata must be arranged in the order of their density. 98

Still this condition does not require that the upper strata shall he never made the experiment, considering it only as an be more heated than the lower strata; for the latter being amusing remark. Cavallo, in 1782, had communicated to the more compressed by the superincumbent mass, tend to become Royal Society of London some experiments which he had more dense; it is sufficient, therefore, if the density increases made, and which consisted in filling soap-bubbles with hydromore by the effect of pressure, in the lower strata, than by gen, which spontaneously rose in the atmosphere, the gas with that of the diminution of the temperature; and this is gene-which they were filled being lighter than the air. But the rally the case in the atmosphere. The currents which arise in brothers Montgolfier knew nothing of the experiments of a fluid mass, in consequence of the differences of temperature Cavallo, nor of the lectures of Dr. Black, when they made their in the same horizontal stratum, are shown in the draught of discovery. As they employed heated air only to fill their chimneys and in the apparatus for warming by means of hot balloons, the name of Montgolfiers was given to such balloons, water. These applications will be considered in the sequel. in order to distinguish them from those filled with hydrogen, which are the only kind employed in the present day.

AEROSTATION

Never was

Quaquaversal Pressure of Gases.-The pressures produced by gases, in consequence of their elastic force, are equally transmitted in all directions; this has been proved in the case of air by means of the Magdeburg hemispheres. From this it is evident that what has been formerly stated regarding bodies immersed in liquids, is equally applicable to air and gases, and that bodies immersed in elastic fluids lose a part of their weight equal to the weight of the quantity of air or gas which they displace. This loss of weight in air is proved by means of the baroscope (from the Greek, a weight-mark), an apparatus which consists of a beam, having at one end a hollow brass sphere four inches in diameter, and at the other a small leaden weight as a counterpoise, fig. 89. In air, the two bodies, the sphere and the weight, balance each other; but if we place the apparatus under the receiver of an air-pump, and exhaust it of the air, the beam will lean to the side of the sphere, as shown in the figure, which indicates that in reality the sphere is heavier than the leaden weight, since they do not experience any pressure from the air, but are only acted on by gravity. It therefore follows, that in the air the sphere loses a certain part of its weight. If we wish to prove, by means of the same apparatus, that this loss is nearly equal to the weight of the air displaced, we measure the volume of the sphere, which is about 333 cubic inches; and as this volume of air weighs about 11 grains, we attach this weight to the leaden weight at the end of the beam. The equilibrium which previously existed between the leaden weight and the sphere, when placed in the air, is now destroyed; but as soon as the apparatus is placed in the exhausted receiver, we find that it is re-grade thermometer, which stood at 31° (that is, 870.8

stored.

The principle which Archimedes discovered, as belonging to liquids, being thus found true for bodies immersed in air, we can now apply to them all that has been formerly said regarding bodies immersed in liquids. Hence, when a body is heavier than the air, it falls in consequence of the excess of its weight above the upward pressure or buoyancy of the fluid. If it be of the same density as the air, its weight and the upward pressure are balanced, and the body floats in the atmosphere. But, if the body be lighter than the air, the buoyancy carries it upwards, and the body rises in the atmosphere until it reaches air of the same density as itself. The force of ascension is then equal to the excess of the buoyancy above the weight of the body. This is the cause of the ascent of smoke, vapours, clouds, and balloons in the atmosphere.

BALLOONS.

M. Charles, Professor of Natural Philosophy at Paris, who died in 1823, was the first who substituted hydrogen for heated air in the construction of balloons. On the 27th of August, 1783, a balloon inflated with this gas was launched into the airy element from the Champ-de-Mars at Paris. In reference to its appearance, Mercier thus writes: " a lesson in Natural Philosophy given before a more numerous On the 21st of November, 1783, and attentive audience." Pilatre de Rozier undertook, in company with the Chevalier d'Arlandes, the first ærial voyage in a balloon made to ascend by heated air. The ascent took place from the garden "de la Muette," near the wood of Boulogne. The æronauts kept up, under the balloon, a fire of damp straw, in order to preserve the expansion of the air in its interior; thus the fire was in danger of being communicated at every instant to the balloon. Ten days after, MM. Charles and Robert ascended from the garden of the Tuilleries at Paris, in a balloon filled with hydrogen. On the 7th of January, 1785, M. Blanchard, in company with Dr. Jeffries, made the first passage from Dover to Calais. The two aronauts reached the coast of France with very great difficulty, and only after having thrown their clothes into the sea, in order to lighten the balloon. Since that period, a very considerable number of ascents in balloons have been performed. The ascent which was made by M. Gay-Lussac in 1804, was the most remarkable for the facts which it added to science, and for the altitude which this celebrated philosopher reached, being 23,019 feet above the level of the sea. Lastly, Mr. Green has risen to a greater height. At that height, the barometer fell to about 13 inches, and the centiFahrenheit) on the ground, was then at-9° (that is, 15°•8 Fahrenheit), being 5 degrees below zero or the freezing point. On the occasion of a recent ascent, a much lower temperature was observed at the same height. In these elevated regions of the atmosphere, the dryness was such, on the day of GayLussac's ascent, which was in July, that hygrometric substances, such as paper, parchment, &c., were dried and twisted as if they had been put before a fire. Respiration and the circulation of the blood was accelerated in consequence of the great rarefaction of the air. M. Gay-Lussac found that his pulse beat 120 times in a minute, instead of 66 times, the usual number when on the ground. At this great height, the sky was of a very deep-blue colour, approaching the aspect of night; while an absolute and solemn silence surrounded the æronaut. Having ascended from the court of the "Conservatoire des Arts et Metiers" at Paris, Gay-Lussac descended near Rouen, after an ærial voyage of six hours, having travelled about 90 miles.

Discovery of Balloons-Balloons, as their name denotes, are round or globe-shaped bodies, made of a light material imper- Construction of Balloons.-The globe of balloons is pearmeable to air, and filled with heated air or hydrogen gas, which shaped, and made of long stripes of silk sewn together and rise in the atmosphere in consequence of their relative light-covered with varnish or a solution of caoutchouc, to render the ness. Their invention is due to two brothers, Stephen and silk impermeable to the air. At the top of a balloon is placed Joseph Montgolfier, paper-makers in the small town of a valve which is kept shut by a spring, and which the aeronaut Annonay, in the department of Ardèche, in France, where can open at pleasure by means of a cord. A light wicker car, their first attempt was made on the 5th of June, 1783. Their in which several persons may be seated, is suspended from the first balloon was a globe made of linen, and lined with paper, about forty yards in circumference, and weighing about five ewt. Being open below, it was inflated with heated air, by burning under it paper, wool, and wet straw. The academician Lalande wrote thus on the occasion:-" At this news, we all said: Such must be the case; how was it never thought of before?" It had been thought of; but there is a difference between the conception of an idea, and its realisation. Dr. Black, Professor of Chemistry in the University of Edinburgh, had stated, in his course of lectures in 1767, that a bladder filled with hydrogen would naturally rise in the atmosphere; but

balloon by the net-work which surrounds the pear-shaped globe, see figs. 90 and 91. A balloon of ordinary dimensions, which can easily lift three persons, is about fifty feet in height, and thirty-six feet in diameter; and its volume, when completely inflated, is upwards of 24,000 cubic feet. The globe weighs about two cwt., and the appendages about one cwt. Balloons are inflated either with pure hydrogen, or with carburetted hydrogen, such as is used for the purpose of lighting shops and streets. Although the latter gas is more dense than the former, it is now generally employed, because it is cheaper and more easily procured than pure hydrogen. It is

only necessary to place the balloon near a gasometer, and fill it by means of a connecting-pipe. In fig. 90 is represented the mode of filling a balloon with pure hydrogen. On the right of the figure is shown a series Fig. 91.

of casks, which contain iron filings, water, and sulphuric acid, substances necessary for the preparation of the hydrogen. From each cask, the gas is conveyed to a central cask, open at bottom, and immersed in a butt full of water. The gas, after passing through this water, is conveyed into the balloon by a long canvas pipe, fixed at one end to the central cask, and at the other to the bottom.

In order to facilitate the filling of the balloon, two masts are erected, having at their top pulleys traversed by a rope, which passes through a ring fixed at the top of the valve. By this means, the balloon being at first raised about a yard above the ground, the gas is admitted; then, in proportion as the balloon is filled, it is raised a little higher, and it is allowed to expand more and more, until it frees itself from this apparatus. It is now necessary to oppose the force with which it begins to ascend. For this purpose, a number of men are employed to hold it down by means of cords fixed to the netting. When the balloon is completely filled, it is then necessary to remove the pipe which conveyed the gas, and to attach the car to the net-work. These different preparatory operations require at least two hours. The aeronaut is then seated in the car, and at a given signal, the cords are loosed, and the balloon ascends with a velocity in proportion to its lightness as compared with the air which it displaces.

It is important to observe that a balloon should not be completely inflated; for the atmospheric pressure diminishing in proportion to the height of the ascent, the interior gas expands in consequence of its elastic force, and tends to make the balloon burst. It is sufficient that the force of ascent; that is,

the excess of the weight of the air displaced above the whole weight of the apparatus, be about ten pounds. It is to be observed that this force remains constant so long as the balloon is not completely inflated by the expansion of the interior gas. For, if the atmospheric pressure be reduced to one-half, the gas in the balloon, according to Mariotte's law, is increased to double its volume. Whence it follows, that the volume of air displaced is itself doubled, and its density is reduced to one-half; therefore its weight, and consequently its upward pressure or buoyancy are still the same. But as soon as the balloon is completely inflated, if it continue to rise, the force of ascent diminishes; for the volume of air displaced remaining the same, the density diminishes. Accordingly, the balloon will ere long reach a point where the upward pressure is zero. Consequently, the balloon can only take then a horizontal direction, being carried by the currents of air which exist in the atmosphere.

The indications of the barometer are the most certain means by which the æronaut knows when he is ascending and when he is descending. In the former case, the column of mercury falls; in the latter, it rises. By the assistance of the same instrument, he is enabled to ascertain the height which he has reached. A long streamer fixed to the car, fig. 91, also indicates, by the position which it takes above or below the car, whether he is ascending or descending. When the aeronaut wishes to descend, he draws the cord which opens the valve placed at the upper part of the balloon; the hydrogen mixes with the exterior air, and the balloon descends. On the contrary, in order to slacken his descent when it is too rapid, or to re-ascend if placed in a perilous situation, the aeronaut empties bags full of sand, a sufficient quantity of which had been placed in the car for this purpose. Thus lightened, the balloon rises again, in order to descend in a more suitable place. The descent is facilitated by suspending an anchor to the car by means of a long cord. When this anchor has taken hold of a proper obstacle on the ground, the car and balloon are lowered by gently drawing the cord.

Balloons have not as yet received any important applications. At the battle of Fleurus, in 1794, a balloon, retained by a cord, was employed to discover the movements of the enemy, which were made known to the army by signals made by an observer seated in the car. Several ascents have also been undertaken with the view of making meteorological observations in the higher regions of the atmosphere. But balloons will only become of real utility when the power of directing them has been attained. The trials hitherto made for this purpose have completely failed. At present, we can only rise in the atmosphere until we meet a current of air which will carry us in the direction answerable to the end we have in view.

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The Parachute.-The object of the parachute (from the French, a guard from falling) is to enable the aeronaut to leave his balloon, by giving him the means of slackening the velocity of his descent. This apparatus is composed of a large circular sail, fig. 92, of about five or six yards in diameter, which, by the effect of the resistance of the air, expands and forms a huge umbrella which slowly descends to the ground. On its edges are fastened cords, which support a car, in which the æronaut is seated. In the centre of the parachute, there is an opening for the escape of the air which is compressed by the effect of the descent; without this, the air would produce oscillations on the parachute, which would be communicated to the car and render the position of the æronaut perilous. In fig. 91 is shown, on the side of the balloon, a parachute folded and attached to the netting, by means of a cord passing over a pulley and fixed to the car. By loosening this cord, the parachute is placed in the power of the aeronaut. M. J. Garnerin was the first who descended in a parachute; but M. Blanchard appears to have been the inventor.

Weight required to raise a Balloon.-In order to calculate the weight required to raise a balloon of given dimensions, when it is supposed to be perfectly spherical, the following formula is employed: v=D, which represents geometrically the volume of a sphere, whose diameter is D, π being the ratio of the circumference to the diameter, or 31416 nearly. Thus, if a balloon of thirty-six feet in diameter were completely filled with hydrogen, its volume would be about 24,430 cubic feet. But in general, the balloon, when it begins to ascend, is only about half filled, whence its volume may be assumed at

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