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formed of them constitutes the main point of difference between an expert and an inexpert chemical analyst.

combined with the metal, are not points for discussion at present. One object was to get a solution of manganese, and we have got it: let us now study the properties of this solu- For the present we will have done with manganese and tion. Our proposition is to precipitate or throw down the zinc, my especial object being to fix on the reader's memory dissolved manganese. How can this be effected? The student the nature of the changes effected on solutions of these metals succeeded in throwing down zinc by means of hydrosulphuric by hydrosulphuric acid, and hydrosulphate of ammonia. acid, either in the form of aqueous solution or gas. Will these The reader must not infer that the re-agents mentioned are agents throw down manganese? On trying the experiment, the only ones for zinc and manganese; there exist several of the reader will find that the manganese cannot be precipitated equal delicacy, but the fact especially to be remembered is by this means. The solution will either remain absolutely this:-Hydrosulphuric acid, and hydrosulphate of ammonia, are clear, or will only become slightly turbid; the manganese tests for all those substances which a beginner would consider to be remaining dissolved. But if instead of hydrosulphurie acid metals. gas, or solution of this gas in water, a solution of the same in ammonia (hartshorn) be employed; or, what amounts to the same thing, if a little hartshorn be added to the manganese solution simultaneously with the hydrosulphuric acid, then all the manganese will be thrown down or precipitated. If the manganese solution be pure, the precipitate will be white, or rather flesh-coloured (we will call it white by courtesy); if the solution contain iron or some other metal-a very probable contingency-then the white or cream-colour will be pro-less, these also are oxides or rusts of corresponding metals portionately disturbed.

"Which a beginner would consider metals,"-what is the meaning of this expression? Why, the meaning is this: Lime, clay, and other earths, the beginner would not suspect to be metallie compounds; they are nevertheless; they are each an oxide, or rust of a corresponding metal; and the metals which form earths are said to be terrigenous or earth-making metals. Again, the reader does not usually associate the idea of a metal with the alkalis, potash, and soda: neverthewhich are said to be kaligenous or alkali-making metals. Well, then, let the student remember the following facts :1. Neither the earth-making nor the alkali-making metals are precipitated from their solution by either hydrosulphuric acid or hydrosulphate of ammonia. 2. All the metals remaining, constituting by far the greater number, and termed by chemists calcigenous metals, are precipitated by hydrosulphuric acid or hydrosulphate of ammonia. (3.) Solutions of all calcigenous metals save uranium, iron, manganese, cobalt, and nickel, are precipitated by either hydrosulphuric acid or hydrosulphate of ammonia. 4. The colour of the precipitate is black.

5. But solutions of zinc and manganese yield a precipitate which is white.

6. And solutions of arsenic, cadmium, antimony, and persalt of tin, yield a precipitate which is yellow.

The preceding are amongst the most important of fandamental chemical facts; the reader should master them thoroughly, not resting content with being able to think them out, but the facts should become part and parcel of the brain itself, so that the student, if roused from his slumbers at night, and asked any questions involved by the six generalisations which have been given, should be instantaneously able to

What I desire especially to impress upon the student's consideration is this. Zine is precipitated from its solution white by hydrosulphuric acid alone, whereas manganese is precipitated white (by courtesy) only when the hydrosulphuric acid is combined with ammonia or hydrosulphate of ammonia. Hence we at once deduce a valuable power in analysis. Supposing zine and ammonia to exist together in one solution, they may readily be separated by applying the principles already deduced. Passing a current of hydrosulphuric acid gas through the compound solution, without the presence of ammonia, all the zine will be thrown down; repeating the operation with the presence of ammonia, or still better, hydrosulphate of ammonia already prepared, the manganese will fail. Both these precipitates will be sulphurets; one of zine, the other of manganese. The reader will now observe that although we just now dismissed the metal zine, this was only for a time. Its consideration is now reopened in connexion and by contrast with manganese: chemical philosophy, in point of fact, is a structure made up of this comparative knowledge of different bodies. In addition to the fact that zine is precipitated by hydrosulphuric acid alone, and manganese by hydrosulphuric acid in combination with ammonia, let the reader remember that a white precipitate by either of these agents is altogether exceptional. The usual colour of precipitates by hydrosul-supply the required answers. phuric acid and hydrosulphate of ammonia is black. metals are alone precipitated white: these are zinc and manganese. The student will now recognise à means by which zinc and manganese, if existing together in one solution, admit of being separated; he will perhaps remark, however, that we do not separate the metals obtaining zinc bodily, and manganese bodily but obtain either a metal or a sulphuret. He will THE THIRD DECLENSION (continued). perhaps desire, like most beginners, to obtain this bodily presence of the metals. To this extent I cannot gratify him in There is yet another class, of which the stem ends in v or the present lesson. Suffice it to say, that the process of re- r. As examples take ή ρις, ῥινος, the nose ; ὁ δελφις, moving sulphuric acid may be accomplished-is accomplished deλpwv-os, a dolphin; yiyas, yıуavros, a giant; ò odovs, | in the reduction of metals from their ores-but would be odour-os, a tooth (Lat. dens. Eng. dentist.) difficult to accomplish in our present case; it is never ac-S. N. complished in the course of analysis. Chemists arrive at some of their most correct results by collateral reasoning and calculation: thus, knowing that the white sulphuret of manganese is made up of- -parts sulphur, and parts of manganese-that the white sulphuret of zinc is made up parts zinc, and- -parts sulphur-of course it is easy to calculate the amount of metal and of sulphur present, without actually separating the sulphur and obtaining the metal bodily.

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Two

LESSONS IN GREEK.-No. IX.
BY JOHN R. BEARD, D.D.

γιγαντος,

δελφίνες γιγαντες

ρις

G.

pīv-os

δελφις | γιγας
δελφίνος

οδους

D.

ρίνει

δελφίνι

γιγαντ-ος
γιγαντι

οδοντ-ος οδοντι

A.

pīv·a

δελφινα

γιγαντοα

οδοντια

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δελφις (εν) γιγαν

οδους

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οδοντ-ες

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δελφίνων | γιγαντων

οδοντίων

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δελφι-σι
δελφίν ας

γιγά-σι

οδου-σι

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It is a very common error for chemical beginners to imagine D. N.A.V. piv-ɛ that a certain result will always follow the addition of a certain substance to a solution of the same body. Thus, for example, a beginner might imagine that zine, in whatever state of solution, will always be thrown down by hydrosulphuric acid, and that manganese, in whatever solution, will always be thrown down by hydrosulphate of ammonia. This is not so. The conditions necessary to ensure these, or any other chemical results, lie in a comparatively narrow space; they can only be learned by practice, and the appreciation

G.D. To this class belong the adjectives in 1, ας, αινα, αν, as μελας, μελαινα, μελαν, black, g. μελανος, μελαινής, μέλανος, and ταλας, ταλαινα, ταλαν, unhappy, 2, πας, πασα, παν, αν, every, g. Tavros, Tαons, Tavтos, and its compound araç, ἅπασα, ἅπαν 3, έκων, έκουσα, έκον, willing; g. έκοντος, άraoα, åπav Kovσng, EKOVтos, and akwy, aкovσα, aкov, unwilling (à privative makes iкwv into akwv) 4, the adjectives in eis, eσoa, sv, e. g.

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remains at the end of the word and before consonants, but disappears in the middle between vowels. Nouns in ɛuç have, in the accusative singular a, and in the accusative plural ας; take in the genitive singular what is called the Attic form in ως, instead of oς; and in the dative singular as well as in the nominative plural, admit contraction ; which, however, is commonly not found in the accusative plural. If a vowel precedes εvc, the whole singular and plural is contracted, as in χοευς, Nouns in aὓς and οὓς take the contraction only in the accusative plural. The words about to be declined are & βασιλευς, a king ; ὁ χοευς, a measure of liquid (about a gallon) ; ò, ǹ ßoũs, a bull or cow, an ox (Latin bos, bovis); and ǹ ypaûç

an old woman.

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D. N.A.V. χαριεντε

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G.

βασιλε ως

χο (εω)ῶς*

βο-ος

γραφος

G.D.

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χαριεντοιν

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γρασι

A.

βασιλεα

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γραῦν

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βασιλεῦ χοεῦ

βου

γραν

λειφθεντος

λειφθεισης

λειφθεντος

Ρ.Ν.

βασιλεῖς χοεῖς

βουες

γρᾶτες

λειφθεντι

λειφθειση

λειφθεντι

G.

βασιλεων χο(εω)ῶν

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λειφθεντα

λειφθεισαν

λειφθεν

D.

βασιλεῦσι χοεῦσι

βουσι

γραυσι

λειφθεις;

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(βο-ας)βους (γρᾶ-ας)

λειφθέντες

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γραῦς

λειφθεντων λειφθεισων

λειφθεντων

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γρᾶτες

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λειφθεισι

D.N.A.V.

βασιλε-ε

Baoiλe-e

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γράψε

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λειφθεντα

G.D.

βασιλεύοιν | χοε-οιν

βο-οιν

γρα-οῖν

λειφθεντες λειφθείσαι

λειφθεντα

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VOCABULARY.

λειφθέντοιν

D. N.A.V. λειφθεντε
G.D. λειφθεντοιν λειφθείσαιν

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We have ivory. Ivory is produced (γιγνομαι) in districts of Africa. The rays of the sun delight the shepherds. The brothers and the sisters are delighted by the rays of the sun. The sister is lovely. We admire fine ivory. Many elephants are in Africa. The business of the teeth is to masticate the food. It is the duty of every man to worship the divinity. To the gods there once was (in idiomatic English, the gods once carried on a war against (προς) the giants.

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Οἱ βασιλεῖς επιμελειαν εχουσι των πολιτῶν. Ἡ αγελη τῷ νομεῖ ἑπεται. Εκτωρ ὑπ ̓Αχιλλέως φονεύεται. Οἱ ἱερεῖς τοις θεοῖς βοῦς θύουσιν. Κυρος παῖς ην αγαθων γονεων. Οἱ αχαριστοι τους γονεας ατιμαζουσιν. Πειθου, ω παι, τοις γονεῦσιν. Τηλεμαχος ην Οδυσσεως υἱος. Βουλου τους γονεας Οἱ των γραῶν ληροι τα «τα προ παντος εν τιμαις εχειν. τείρουσιν. Καλως αρχεις, ω βασιλεῦ. βασιλεῦ. Αἱ γρᾶες πολυλογοι εισιν. Οἱ νομεῖς την βοῶν αγέλην εις νομην αγουσιν. Όμηρος τους Ήρας οφθαλμους τοις των βοῶν εικαζει. Πατροκλος φιλος ην Αχιλλεως. Κυρον, τον των Περσών βασιλεα, επι τη τε αρετη και τη σοφία θαυμαζομεν.

ENGLISH-GREEK.

The flocks follow the shepherd. The king has care of (for) the citizen. Ears are tired by the idle talk of the old woman. An old woman is talkative. The shepherd leads the herd of oxen to the city. Oxen are sacrificed to the gods by (ύπο with g.) the priests. O priests, sacrifice an ox to the gods. Children love their (the) parents. Parents are loved by their children. It is the business of a good shepherd to

I pass on to the second great division of nouns, and proceed take (have) care of his herds. to speak of

B. NOUNS WHICH IN THE GENITIVE HAVE A VOWEL BEFORE
THE TERMINATION ος.

And here, first, I must take up substantives which end in ευς, αὖς, and οὖς. The stem of these ends in v. The v

* The verb εort with a genitive, as here, signifies it is the duty of, it is becoming in.

In the second place I must ask your attention to nouns ending in ης, ες ; ως (g. wos) and ως and w ( g. oos) in μας (g. αος), os (g. εος). The stem of these words ends in r; the o remains at the end and before a consonant, but disappears in the

* That is, χοεως is contracted into χοῶς, χρεα into τo, χρεων into χοῶν, and yoεas into χοᾶς.

middle between two vowels. In the dative plural one e dis- παρεχε. Επαμεινωνδας πατρος ην αφανούς. Ελεαιψε τον appears, e.g., ὁ θως, a jackal, τοις θω-σι. ατυχή ανθρωπον. Ορεγεσθε, ω νεανια, αληθων λογων. ακρατεῖς αισχραν δουλειαν δουλευουσιν. Μη ὁμιλιαν ακρατει ανθρωπῳ.

Of these words, let us consider, first, those which end in και ες. The terminations ης (m. and f.), ες (n.), belong only to adjectives, and to proper names terminating in adjective forms in νης, λης, γενης, κρατης, μηδης, πειθης, σθενης, and (κλεης) κλῆς· The neuter presents the pure stem.

The words of this class suffer contraction in all the cases, except the nominative and vocative singular, and the dative plural, after dropping the σ. The words ending in κλεης being contracted into κλῆς, again undergo contraction in the dative singular. Learn both the contracted and the uncontracted forms I am about to give of o, ή, σαφης, clear, το σαφές | and ή τριήρης, a Trireme, or galley with three banks of rowers

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ENGLISH-GREEK.

Socrates had (in Greek, to Socrates was wonderful wisdom, Pity unfortunate men. We pity unfortunate men. Many youths were disciples of Socrates. Socrates had (in Greek, o Socrates was much wisdom. They admire the wisdom of Socrates. The immoderate (man) serves a shameful servitude. We admire the beautiful tragedies of Sophocles. True words are believed. I pity the lite of immoderate men. Have not intercourse with immoderate men.

LESSONS IN ITALIAN GRAMMAR-No. III.

BY CHARLES TAUSENAU, M.D.,

(σαφε-ες) σαφεῖς (σαφε-α)σαφῆ of the University of Pavia, Professor of the Italian and German Languages at the Kensington Proprietary Grammar School.

Ν. σαφης

σαφες

(σαφε ες) σαφείς (σαφεα)σαφῆ

(σαφε-ων)σαφῶν

D. (σαφε-ϊ) σαφεῖ

σαφεσι

4. (σαφε-α) σαφῆ

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γ. σαφες

σαφες

Dual. N.A.V.

σαφε-ε σαφη

G.D.

σαφεοιν σαφοῖν

(Continued from page 21.)

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Mark the contraction in the dual of τριηρεε into τριήρε, not into the usual form in ει.

In adjectives in ης, ες, when these terminations are preceded by a vowel, ea is commonly contracted into a, as Περικλεᾶ, and not into η, as in σαφεα σαφῆ ; for example, ακλεης, κη renowned, makes ακλεεα into ακλεα, in the masculine and feminine accusative singular, and in the neuter nominative, accusative and vocative; so υγιης forms ὑγια.

Proper names of this termination, as well as Αρης, Mars, in the accusative singular, follow the first as well as the third . declension, and are therefore denominated Heteroclite (that is, of different declensions); accordingly, we have both Σωκρατη and Σωκράτην. But in those ending in κλης, the accusative in ην is not Attic, and therefore not allowable.

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Tipo

Topo

Altero

Altire

Σωτηρία, ας, ή, salvation.
Τραγωδία, ας, ή, tragedy.
Αναξαγόρας, ου, ό, Anaxagoras. Vero
Επαμεινώνδας, ου, ό, Epami- | Vino

nondas.

and

Pippo

pip-po

He has a bad smell

I repair

Empire
Wretched

Unpunished

Joseph, Joe

Philip, Phil

Coppa

kop-pah

Zuppa

tzóop-pah

The occiput, goblet.
Soup

1 abe
Teco

táh-bai

tái-ko

tée-po

Consumption

With thee

Type (a model)

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Mouse

Tube

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Altar
Haughty

To mount
Laurel
Height
Act, action
Cast, throw
Rent
Cooked

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All, quite
Vain

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Altare

παρα τε τους ποταμους και τους έλωδεις τοπους φερει καλαμους πολλους. Λεγε αει τα αληθη, ω παῖ. Αναξαγόρας, ὁ σοφιστης, + When the gg's are followed by a, o, or ut, they are pronounced διδασκαλος ην Περικλεους. Ο Ηρακλεις, τοις ατυχεσι σωτηρίαν in each syllable like English g in g.t

σωτηρίαed

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has two sounds-one like the English consonant 1; the second is a peculiar sound, of which I shall have occasion to speak in the pronouncing tables.

3. M m, named in the alphabet emme (pronounced ém-mai). To insure perfect accuracy in the pronunciation, I may remark that when m is preceded by a vowel with which it forms one syllable, and a consonant being the next, it must be very softly sounded, and the voice must glide quickly to the next consonant, almost as if it formed part of the same syllable; for example, ambizione, ahm-bee-tzee-6-nai, ambition; empio, ém-peeo, impious; ombra, óm-brah, a shadow.

4. Nn, named in the alphabet enne (pronounced en-nai). Generally speaking, this letter is pronounced just as in English; but the observation made on the m is equally applicable to n, In similar circumstances, the voice must glide quickly from the n to the succeeding consonant; for example, andare, ahn-dáhrai, to go; entrare, en-tráh-rai, to enter; onda, ón-dah, a wave. After g, n has a peculiar sound, which I shall have occasion to explain in the pronouncing tables. Often n is pronounced like m before words commencing with the consonants b, m, and p; as, gran bestia, pronounced grahm bêsteeah, a boorish, insolent féllow, great blockhead, &c.; scolpire in marmo, pronounced skol-pée-rai im mahrr-mo, to chisel in marble; con poca fatica, pronounced kom pô-kah fah-tée-kah, with little effort. This is certainly the finest pronunciation, because it is the genius of the Italian language, as in the classical tongues, particularly Greek, to soften the transition from one word to another, and often from one syllable to the other, bychanges of consonants.

5. Rr, named in the alphabet erre (pronounced ér-ra*), R, when it is followed by a consonant, must be vibrated with a stronger emphasis than in English; and it is on the other hand very soft before a vowel; as, carta, pronounced kahrr-ta, paper, and soft in cara, pronounced káh-rah, dear.

(To be continued.)

ah-bee-too-áh-to

III.

Zebedee

Thucidydes Habituated

Zodiac

Fungus growing on larches

Ignorant

Stealing of cattle

Education and government of children

There are six semi-vowels in the Italian language, so called because in their utterance a vowel must be placed before the consonant. They are not pronounced in one syllable only, as in the case of the mutes, but require the utterance of two syllables, which syllables are substantially the same though in an

inverse order. The semi-vowels are:

1. Ff, named in the alphabet effe (pronounced éf-fai). 2. L1, named in the alphabet elle (pronounced êl-lai). It

In this and a few other cases, I am compelled, for the sake of completeness of system, to make a slight departure from strict orthography. This word being properly written Mazzara, as well as the following words gazzera, azzimo, bazzotto, azzuffa.

+ There is very little difference between the pronunciation of the single z and zz. The zz, as well as z, may have the sound of tz in the word switzer, or dz in the word adze. According to modern orthography, the z is generally doubled between two single vowels in the middle of a word, but not after a consonant and not before diphthongs the first vowel of which is i; as, for examples, ia, ie, Lo, where it must remain single, and has the hard sound.

LESSONS IN FRENCH.-No. LXXX.

By Professor LOUIS FASQUELLE, LL.D.

§ 135.-REMARKS ON THE FOREGOING RULES. (1.) Although the compound tenses of the reflective or pronominal verbs [§ 43, (6.), § 46, (2.), § 56] take être as an auxiliary, the past participle of those verbs does not follow the rule (2.) of the preceding section; but comes under the same rules with those conjugated with avoir. It agrees with the direct regimen, when that regimen comes before it, and is invariable when that regimen succeeds:

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I saw them repel (repelling) the enzmies.

Je les ai vus prendre la fuite.
I saw them taking flight.

.Je les ai vus frapper.

I saw them striking.

Les personnes que j'ai entendues chanter.

The persons whom I heardsing day.

I saw them relieved by their enemies.

Invariable.

Je les ai vu repousser par les

ennemis.

I saw them repelled by the enemies.

Je les ai vu prendre sur le fait.
I saw them taken in the deed.
Je les ai vu frapper.

I saw them struck.

Les chansons que j'ai entendu

chanter.

The songs which I heard sung.

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The little affection which you have shown him, has restored his cour courage.

When le peu is used in the sense of the want of, the participle remains unaltered :

Le peu d'affection que vous lui avez témoigné, l'a découragé.

The want of affection which you have shown him, has discouraged him.

§ 136.-THE ADVERB.-RULES.-PLACE OF THe Adverb. tense is generally placed after the verb : (1.) In French the adverb used to modify a verb in a simple

Que de gens prennent hardiment | How many people assume boldly le masque de la vertu !

SCUDéri.

the mask of virtue!

(2.) Adverbs of place, and those used in interrogations, have the same place in French as in English :—

Où est votre frère? Il est ici.

Where is your brother? He is here.

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* Noël and Chapsal, page 165. Several grammarians call en at times a régimen direct. We think with Bescherelle (Dictionnaire national, pays 1114), that en does not represent the entire direct regimen, but only a part of it, or rather merely refers to it; the direct regimen being itself understood. Ex. Avez-vous des livres ? J'en ai. Have you books? I have some. In the latter sentence, the words quelques uns, the direct object, is understood after the verb; J'en ai quelques uns, and en is rather a reference to it, than a substitute for it. The literal translation of the sentence wil show this: I have of them a few.

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