LESSONS IN ENGLISH.-No. LXXI. By JOHN R. BEARD, D.D. which is shortened into He beat you and me. Aided by these observations, you will have no difficulty in determining what form your words should assume when united by conjunctions. You will, for instance, see that of these two propositions the first is erroneous, and the second correct :1. He is wiser than me. JOINING is the office of conjunctions. The joining may take place 1st Clause. 1 2 2. He is wiser than I (am). These sentences are right or wrong according to the meaning you "Let there be no strife, I pray thee, between me and thee, and intend. If you mean that a loves b better than e loves b, the first is correct; in full, the sentence would then stand: 3 2nd Clause. between my herdmen and thy herdmen, for we are brethren.". (Gen. xiii. 8.) The conjunction, and, number one, unites the pair of words, me, thee; number two unites the first clause with the second; the third and unites "my herdmen" with "thy herdmen." You love him better than I love him; but if you mean that a loves b better than a loves c, then the sen- You love him better than you love me. As an instance of and uniting propositions, take the fol- Wesley, who was a good scholar, says :— lowing: 1. And Jesus arose out of the synagogue 2. And entered into Simon's house, 3. And Simon's wife's mother was taken with a fever 4. And they besought him for her, 5. And he stood over her 6. And rebuked the fever, 7. And it left her; 8. And immmediately she arose 9. And ministered unto them Here are nine successive sentences introduced by and. “He hath died to redeem such a rebel as me; and Lord Brougham, whose English is quite idiomic, writes :— The conjunction, as, carries with it the force of a relative pronoun, that is to say, it introduces a second proposition to which it serves for the subject; e. g., But as many as received him.”—(John i. 12.) ¡ As is sometimes used in a manner which involves a grammatical The conjunction for, as it appears in the above example, gives | doubt; for instance, should we write, an instance of a causal conjunction, or a conjunction which assigns the ground or reason of what precedes. In the ensuing you have The conditions are as follow; (or) The conditions are as follows. a specimen of a conditional conjunction in if, and of comparative The phrases are elliptical, and the preference of the one to the conjunctions in as well and than: other depends on the way in which the ellipsis should be filled The conditions are as (they) follow. I am disposed in favour of the last, thinking that the verb in such They affirmed (that) he would not come, is required as indispensable by some grammatical critics with an emphasis which may be somewhat undue. That the sense does not require its insertion, is obvious from its nature and from the sentence just given as an example. If, however, the second member of the sentence is separated from the first by several intervening words, that may serve as a point on which the mind may rest, until it takes up the clause to which it refers, and for which in some sort it is a substitute; e. g., Your brother stated that, as he and your cousin were passing down High-street, they saw a child fall from the roof of a house. Sound, also, has something to do in determining the use or the non-use of that. The ease with which conjunctions may be repeated, since they have no substantive and independent meaning, gives rise to pleonasms, that is, to forms of speech in which one word or more is found than is necessary. In conversation it is common to hear a sentence introduced with but however, when only but or however is necessary; the uneducated are especially given to In the second proposition, me occurs after and, because me, as pleonastic forms of this kind. But we find them in good authors, well as you, is dependent on beat; e. g., as may be seen by the italicised words in these examples • Whết tàms the poor have cried Cesar hath wept." Shal'spearei • But filid if tlinï evil øøryant any."—(Math, xxiv. 18,)' Corresponding ConjunctIONS. Certain conjunctions go in pairs; that is, the precedence of the one necessitates the use of the other; e. g., 1. To though corresponds yet; as, "Though he die yet shall he live."-(John xi. 25.) 2. To whether corresponds or; as, "Whether it be greater or less."-Bishop Butler. 3. To either corresponds or; as, "The indulgence of a declamatory manner is not favourable either to good composition or good delivery.”—Blair. 4. To neither corresponds nor; as, "John the Baptist came neither eating bread nor drinking wine.”—(Luke vii. 33.) 5. To both corresponds and; as, "I am a debtor both to the Greeks and to the barbarians, both to the wise and unwise." (Rom. i. 14.) 6. To such corresponds as; as, "An assembly such as earth never saw."-Cowper. 7. To such corresponds that; as, will perceive it." "The difference is such that all 8. To as corresponds as; as, a leper as white as snow."-(2 9. To as corresponds so; as, "As two are to four, so are six to And he went out from his presence Kings v. 27.) twelve." 10. To so corresponds as; as, "How can you descend to a thing so base as falsehood." 11. To so corresponds as; as, "No lamb was e'er so mild as he."-Langhorne. 12. To so corresponds as; as, "We ought to read blank verse so as to make every line sensible to the ear."—Blair. 13. To so corresponds that; as, "No man was so poor that he could not make restitution."-Milman. as, 14. To not only or not merely corresponds but, but also, but even; "In heroic times smuggling and piracy were deemed not only not infamous, but even absolutely honourable."-Maunder's Gram"These are questions not of prudence merely, but of morals also."-Dymond's Essays mar. INTERJECTIONS. Instead of speaking of a person, you may speak to a person, or call upon a person; you may employ the style of direct address. For such kinds of address our nouns in English have no specific form; but exclamations or interjections supply the place of such forms, and mark the existence of a direct address or appeal. That address or appeal may have various meanings, and even various shades of meaning, corresponding with the state of the feelings at the moment; e. g., "Ah Dennis! Gildon ah! what ill-starr'd rage Sometimes interjections, for instance, O! oh! ah! lo! merely call attention, or indicate an appeal or an address; in such cases they are followed by the case of the subject or that of the object; as, Subject: Object: "O thou unknown, almighty Cause!"- -Burns, How their leaves instruction yield!"—Heber. When deep feeling is intended, the case of the object is used with a pronoun of the first person; as, Ah me! O unhappy me! woe is me! that is, ah! what will become of me! O what has befallen unhappy me! woe is to me! or, woe is on me! " "Judas said, Hail, master! and kissed him.' -(Matt. xxvi. 49.) "Hail, Macbeth ! "—Shakspeare. That is, Hail be to thee, O master! Hail (health) be to Macbeth! In order to distinguish the subject and the object, when used with exclamations or interjections, from the subject and the object when employed in the third person singular, the former may be called the subject of direct address, and the latter the object of direct address. The interjection, woe to requires the case of the object; the object, in reality, is governed by the preposition to :— "Woe to them that join house to house.”—(Is. v. 8.) I have now to speak of the diphthongs; but before entering from the English, inasmuch as the two vowels forming a into details I may remark that these letters differ materially diphthong do not entirely merge into one sound, but are in Italian more or less distinctly heard, though only pronounced by one voice, which gives thein the value of one sound. This broad opening of the mouth, and with one emission of the air or and general characteristic, however, prevails among all Italian diphthongs, that there must be a ruling sound, requiring a which ruling sound is at one time on the first, at another on greater stress of the voice and more distinctness of utterance, the second of the two vowels. the second of the two vowels. In those diphthongs where the second of the two vowels is the ruling sound, the voice glides more rapidly from the first vowel to the second, and is, as it were, absorbed by it. The second is on that account heard with greater distinctness, and such diphthongs present more of a united sound, while in those diphthongs where the first of the two vowels is the ruling sound, the second is somewhat which approach to a united sound, though shortly and quickly more distinctly heard than the first vowel of those diphthongs, trailed along, as it were, by the first. The second kind or class may be termed, on this account, the separated diphthongs; the first class the united diphthongs, though I must caution the reader not to understand these words in their strictly literal sense; because, as I have stated before, in all Italian diphthongs the two vowels are more or less distinctly heard. United diphthongs are, for example, ia, as in fiato (feeáh-to), breath; biada (beeáh-dah), corn; piano (peeáh-no), even, slow. ie, as in lieto (leeê-to), cheerful; bieco (beeê-ko), squinting; priego (preeê-go), request, prayer. io, as in fiore (feeó-rai), flower; piove (peeô-vai), it rains; brioso (bree-ó-so), lively; chioma (keeô-mah); head of hair. iu, as in piu (peeóo), more; fiume (feebo-mai), a river schiuma (skeeóo-mah), foam, scum. ua, as in guasto (gwáh-sto), destruction; quà (kwàh), here, hither; quale (kwáh-lai), who. ue, as in guerra (gwêrr-rah), war; Guelfo (gwêl-fo), a Guelph ; questo (kwái-sto), this. ui, as in guisa (gwée-zah), guise, manner; Guido (gwée-do), Guy; qui (kwee), here. uo, as in cuore (kooô-rai), heart; suono (sood-no), sound; uomo (ooô-mo), man. Separated diphthongs are, for example, ae, as in aere (áhai-rai), air, gas; aerimante (ahai-ree-máhntai), one who predicts the air, or by aeromancy. ai, as in laido (láhee-do), ugly; maisi (mahee-sée), yes indeed. ao, as in Paolo (páho-lo), Paul. ; THIRD PRONOUNCING TABLE, as in aura (áhoo-rah), a soft breeze; lauro (lahoo-ro), laurel; fraude (fráhoo-dai), deceit; fauno (fáhoo-no), faun; causa (káhoo-zah), a cause (at law), affair. eo, as in Eolo (êo-lo), Eolus. eu, as in Europa (aioo-rô-pah), Europe; feudo (fêoo-do), a feud or feoff; Seleuco (sai-lêoo-ko), Seleucus. SHOWING WORDS WITH VOWELS IN COALITION. 1. Words the same with regard to their letters but differen with regard to their syllables: Italian. Balia The vowel i before any other vowel, and the vowel u before o, as they occur in the united diphthongs, make in the pro- Balio nunciation of Italian precisely the same impression as a grave or diatonic note in music, slightly but distinctly touched, to glide over to the second ruling vowel. They are very easy Bacio transitions, and carry with them a particular charm, giving to the sound a certain roundness and fulness, thus con- Bugia tributing greatly, by the frequency of the diphthongs in which they occur, to the musical character of the Italian tongue. It must be noted that there are vowels which come together in words, but are, nevertheless, not diphthongs ; as, for example, coagulare (ko-ah-goo-láh-rai), to coagulate; caos (káh-os), chaos; coerente (ko-ai-rên-tai), coherent; coincidere (ko-in-tchée-dai-rai), coincide; raunare (rah-oo-náhrai), to assemble; aempiere (ah-êm-peeai-rai), fulfil; reale (raiah-lai), royal, real, loyal: riunire (ree-oo-née-rai), to reunite; viola (vée-o-lah), he violates; viottolo (vee-ót-to-lo), narrow passage or way, round-about way; Dione (dee-ó-nai), Dion; Tiziano (tee-tsee-áh-no), Titian; Teodoro (tai-o-dô-ro), Theoore; riesco (rée-ê-sko), I succeed; reato (rai-ah-to), guilt or sin; paese (pah-ai-zai), country; reina (rai-ée-nah), queen; leone (lai-o-nai), lion; mansueto (mahn-soo-ê-to), tame, gentle, mild. Pronounced. báh-leeah bah-lée-ah báh-leeo bah-lée-o Bacio bth-tcho* bah-tchée-o bóo-jah Bugia Viola lee-shée-ah lée-shah veeô-lah vée-o-lah English. Power, dominion amman A kiss, I kiss A northern, sunless aspect He bores a hole, he lies A lie Smooth, sleek He violates Some grammarians are of opinion that in cases of the coalition of three and sometimes four vowels in the Italian language, those vowels form one syllable uttered with one and the same emission of the voice; and they term the coalition of three vowels a triphthong, and the coalition of four, a quadriphthong, if I may so express it. They have been, perhaps, led into that belief by the example of the poets, who in the middle of a verse use the triphthongs like one syllable. It is certainly allowable for Italian poets to count two or three syl- Lince lables being mere vowels as one; but it would be strange to found grammar on poetical licences, which are, strictly speaking, exceptions to grammatical rule. The following examples, generally cited as triphthongs, are spelt like words of two syllables, though, as I have already observed, the poets use them in the middle of a verse like words of one syllable; and this is reason enough why they should not be considered triphthongs, i.e., coalitions of three vowels forming one sound and Biada one syllable; as, miei (meeê-ee), my (pl.); tuoi (tooô-ee), thy Duma (pl.); suoi (sooô-ee), his (pl.); guai (gwah-ee), wailings; Cielo buoi (booô-ee), oxen; oxen; vuoi (vooô-ee), thou wilt; puoi (pooô-ee), thou canst; appiuolo (ahp-pee-ooô-lo), a kind of apple-tree; cedriuolo (tchai-dree-ooo-lo), a cucumber; mariuolo Paolo (mah-ree-ooô-lo), a sharper; vetrìuolo (vai-tree-ooô-lo), vitriol, Caos vitrious. Examples of the so-called quadriphthongs shall be given and commented on as they occur. I have classed au as a separated diphthong where the first vowel is the ruling sound. There are, however, words containing that diphthong, in which u, the second, is the ruling sound; for example, paura (pahóo-rah), fear; baule (bahoo-lai), portmanteau; Kaulle (sahool-lai), Saul. But even in this class of words a and must be distinctly heard; a, as the first of the vowels, cannot be glided over rapidly and absorbed by the u, as would be the case if a united diphthong. The diphthong au must therefore always be classed among the separated diphthongs. Leone Creusa Lamentation Lion East wind Creusa, a woman's name Corn Diana Heaven, horizon, the air Cheerful Paul Chaos Faun Fear * For the sake of adhering to system, I am obliged here to anticipate the use of some combinations I have not yet explained, but which will be fully explained in the next lesson; as, for example, cio, gia, svia, &c. I have stated that au is, strictly speaking, a diphthong, but principally in those words where the accent of tone falis on the second of the vowels that compose it. It makes in its pronunciation the impression as if it were no diphthong at all, because each of the vowels is distinctly separated in pronunciation. On that account, I have ventured to place it amongst those words, with vowels in coalition, that are not diphthongs. Ood-mo loo-ô-go Man Fluido Luigi Uomo Luogo LESSONS Almost, as it were Dual Rien n'éblouit les grandes ámes, parceque rien n'est plus haut MASSILLON. qu'elles. Nothing dazzles great minds, bccause nothing is higher than they. (6.) With regard to the conjunction, si, see 125, (3.) 144.-COLLOCATION OF WORDS. (1.) The place of the different parts of speech has been menSpace, spot, locality tioned in the Syntax under their several heads, and in various other parts of the work. A résumé of the principal rules of construction may, however, not be unacceptable here. IN FRENCH.-No. LXXXI I. By Professor LOUIS FASQUELLE, LL.D. § 143.—THE CONJUNCTION.-GOVERNMENT OF CONJUNCTIONS. [See 127.] (1.) Conjunctions govern the verbs following them in the infinitive, the indicative, and the subjunctive modes. 1. The infinitive must be put after every conjunction which is followed by the preposition de, and after all those which differ from prepositions, only because they are followed by a verb instead of a noun : (7.) Long adverbs of manner, ending in ment, other long adverbs, and the adverbs of time and place, aujourd'hui, demain, hier, ice, i, are not placed between the auxiliary and the participle [§ 136, S. 10, 5.]:~ Nous avons écrit aujourd'hui, We have written to-day. (8.) When there is a direct regimen in the sentence, it is placed after the verb:-- 1. Subject. 2. Attribute. 3. Ferb. 4. Adverb. 5. Régime Direct, L'écolier attentif apprend toujours sa leçon. The scholar attentive letrus always his lesson. (9.) When there are two regimens of equal length, or nearly so, the direct precedes the indirect : 1. Subject. 2. Terb. 3. Direct Regimen. 4. Indirect Regimorà mon père. to my filth-r. Jean John a donné has given (10.) Should the direct regimen be followed by a relative pronoun, or by attributes rendering is longer than the mauectregimen, the latter is placed tist when used alone with a noun; but when other adjective comes WILE * Some adjectives le 85 (11.)] ar» generaly pisted before the noun them, they follow the noun :-on petit homme, a little man; un hommig petit et gros, a short, stout man; others have a different meaning before 198 noun or after it (§ 86), |