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Formulæ relating to Falling Bodies.-The second and third laws of falling bodies may be respectively represented by the formulæ gt, and sgt2. For, let g be the velocity acquired at the end of a second by a body falling in a vacuum, and its velocity after t seconds; then, the velocities being proportional to the times, we have g:v:: 1:t; whence v=gt (1). Again, a body which falls during t seconds by a motion uniformly accelerated, with an initial velocity equal to zero or 0, and a final velocity equal to gt, will describe the same space as if it fell during the whole time t by a uniform motion, with a mean velocity between O and gt, that is, with the velocity gt. Now, in the latter case, the motion being uniform, the space described is equal to the product of the velocity and the time; whence, denoting this space by s, we have sagt t=gt2 (2). The demonstration of these theorems is given mathematically in treatises on Dynamics; see Whewell's Mechanical Euclid, and other elementary works of the same description.

If in the formula (2) we make t=1, we have sg, whence g2s; that is, the velocity acquired at the end of a unit of time is double the space described in that unit of time. This value of g is called the measure of gravity. Thus, in the latitude of London, it has been found that a body falling near the surface of the earth, in a vacuum, describes about 16 feet in the first second of its fall; hence, the measure of gravity of London is about 32 feet; in other words, after a body has fallen 16 feet in 1 second, by the force of gravity, it would, if the attraction of the earth were removed or counteracted, continue to fall ever after with a uniform velocity of 323 feet per second.

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from that centre, it follows that the intensity of gravity will increase or decrease, according as the bodies approach to, or recede from, the general level of the earth's surface. This variation, however, is not apparent in the ordinary phenomena which are observed at the surface of the globe, because, its radius being nearly 4,000 miles, the distance from the centre is sensibly the same when a body is elevated by a few hundred yards. But when the heights of bodies above the earth's surface are very considerable, gravity can no longer be considered as having the same intensity. It is necessary, therefore, to remember that the laws of falling bodies already explained are only true for heights within certain appreciable limits.

2. The second cause which modifies the intensity of gravity is the centrifugal force. A force which produces a curvilinear motion, and which gives to bodies under the influence of this motion a tendency to fly off from the axis of rotation, is called centrifugal. It is demonstrated in treatises on Rational Mechanics, that the centrifugal force is proportional to the square of the velocity of rotation; whence it follows that, under the same meridian, it increases as we approach the equator, where it reaches its maximum, because there the greatest velocity takes place. At the poles the centrifugal force is zero. At the equator, the centrifugal force is directly opposed to gravity, and is equal to of its intensity. Now 289 being the square of 17, it follows that, if the motion of rotation in the earth were 17 times slower than it is, the centrifugal force at the equator would be equal to that of gravity, and all bodies on its surface in this latitude would be on the point of being projected into space.

As we proceed from the equator towards the poles, gravity is less and less affected by the centrifugal force. This happens chiefly because the centrifugal force decreases in proportion as we recede from the equator, and also because that, at the equator, the centrifugal force is directly opposite to that of gravity, whereas, in proceeding towards the poles, its direction becomes more and more inclined to that of gravity, and thus loses intensity. Thus, in fig. 15, in which PQ represents the axis of the earth, and EF the Fig. 15.

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3. The intensity of gravity is also modified by the depression of the earth at the poles; for, in the vicinity, and at these points, bodies are nearer to the centre of the earth, and consequently more subject to its attraction.

The formulæ v=gt, and s = 3 gt2, having been determined by sgt2, considering gravity as an accelerating force, and consequently in Measure of the Intensity of Gravity.-After the preceding cona case where motion is uniformly accelerated, they may be considerations, gravity may be considered in the same place, and in sidered as general formulæ for this kind of motion. But it must be observed, that as g denotes the acceleration of the velocity imparted in each second by the accelerating force, the value of g will vary with the intensity of the force.

Causes which Modify the Intensity of Gravity.-Three causes have an effect in making the intensity of gravity vary; 1st, the elevation of the place above the ground, or general level of the earth's surface; 2nd, the centrifugal force due to the earth's rotation on her axis; 3rd, the depression of the earth's surface near the poles.

1. Since terrestrial attraction acts upon bodies as if the whole mass of the globe were collected at its centre, and this attraction acts upon them in the inverse ratio of the square of their distance

cases where the heights of the fall are inconsiderable, as a constantly accelerating force; and that the measure of its intensity is the velocity imparted in one second of its fall to a body falling in a vacuum, without regard to its mass, seeing that in a vacuum all bodies fall in the same time. This velocity is represented in general by 2g: it increases from the equator to the pole, and at London it is 323 feet.

The Pendulum.-The general name of pendulum is given to every solid body suspended at one point on a horizontal axis, around which it oscillates. There are two kinds of pendulum; the simple and the compound.

The simple pendulum (which exists only in idea) is that which, would be formed by a heavy material point suspended by a per

fectly rigid rod, inextensible and without weight, at a point round which it freely oscillates. Of course this pendulum cannot be put in actual practice, because it is purely theoretical, and is employed only to determine by calculation the laws of the oscillations of the pendulum.

The compound pendulum may be varied in its form in any manner whatever, but it is generally made of a metallic lens or bob, suspended by an iron or wooden rod, and moveable round a horizontal axis, such as the pendulum of a clock, the pendulum , in fig. 13 of the preceding lesson, or that exhibited in the following cut, where o is the point of suspension, and o the point of oscillation; in other words, c is the point where a simple pendulum would produce the same oscillations as the compound pendulum. Compound pendulums are suspended either on a knife-edge, on the same principle as that of balances, or by means of a thin and flexible steel spring, which is bent slightly at every oscillation.

In order to explain the oscillatory motion of the pendulum, we shall first notice the simple pendulum cм, fig. 16. When the material point м is below the point of suspension e on the vertical passing through that point, the action of gravity is destroyed, or rather counteracted; but if the point be transferred to m, its weight P will be decomposed into two forces, the direction of the one being in the straight line em produced to B, and that of the other in the tangent m D to the arc mм n. The composant m B is counteracted by the resistance of the point c, but the composant m D urges the material point to descend from in to M. When it reaches this point, the pendulum does not stop; for, in consequence of its inertia, it proceeds in the

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Fig. 16.

direction Mn. Now, if the same construction be made at any point of the arc Mn, it will be found that the gravity which acted from m to M with an accelerating force will now act from м to n with a retarding force. It will take away, therefore, successively from the moveable the velocity acquired in its descent, so that, when it reaches the point n at a height equal to that of the point m, the velocity will become zero, as it was at the latter point. Whence it follows, that the same series of phenomena will be repeated, and the pendulum will continually oscillate. In practice, this result is prevented by the resistance of the air, and the rigidity of the cord, obstacles which can never be completely annihilated in compound pen

dulums.

Laws of the Oscillation of the Pendulum.The passage of the pendulum from one extreme position or point m to the other is n called an oscillation or swing. The are m n is called the amplitude of the oscillation; and the length of the simple pendulum is the distance of the point of suspension e from the material point м.

that is, that they are sensibly equal in the same time, so long as their amplitudes do not exceed a certain limit, namely 2o or 3o of the circle.

Galileo was the first who established the isochronism of the small oscillations of the pendulum. It is said that, when a young man, he first made this discovery by observing the motions of a lamp suspended in the dome of the cathedral at Pisa.

2. In pendulums of the same length, the duration of the oscillations are the same, whatever be the substances of which they are composed. Thus, simple pendulums of which the material point is composed of cork, lead, or gold, perform the same number of oscillations in the same time, if they are of equal length. 3. In pendulums of unequal length, the durations of their oscillations are proportional to the square roots of their lengths. Thus, if the lengths of pendulums be respectively 4, 9, 16, &c., times that of a given pendulum, the duration of their oscillations will be respectively 2, 3, 4, &c. times that of the oscillation of the given pendulum.

4. At different places of the earth's surface, the durations of the oscillations of a pendulum of the same length are in the inverse ratio of the square roots of the intensities of gravity.

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T

2g

These laws are deduced from the formula tπ√2, which is derived from the application of the calculus to the motion of the simple pendulum. In this formula, t denotes the duration of an oscillation; 7, the length of the pendulum; 2g, the intensity of gravity, that is, the velocity acquired at the end of the 1st second by a body falling in a vacuum. Also, π is a constant quantity which denotes the ratio of the circumference of a circle to its diameter, which is equal to 3.141592.

2g

The first two laws of the pendulum are deduced at once from the formula t==√ ; for this formula contains the values neither of the amplitude of the oscillation, nor of the density of the substance of which the pendulum is composed, the value of being independent of the values of these quantities. As to the third and fourth laws, they are also comprehended under the formula, since, in the radical expression, 7 is the numerator, and 2g the denominator of the fraction.

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Length of the Compound Pendulum. The preceding laws and formulæ are applicable also to the compound pendulum; but in this case it is necessary to define what is meant by the length of the pendulum. Every compound pendulum is formed of a heavy rod terminating in a larger or smaller mass, according to its form and purpose; now, all the different points of such a pendulum tend, according to the third law of pendulum motion, to describe their oscillations in times differing from each other, and increasing in duration in proportion to the square roots of their distances from the point of suspension. But all these points being invariably connected together, their oscillations are necessarily performed in the same time. Hence, it is evident that the motion of the points nearer to the axis of suspension is retarded, and that of the points more remote from that axis is accelerated, Between these two extremes there are some points which are neither accelerated nor retarded, and which oscillate as if they were not connected with the rest of the mass. These points being all at the same distance from the axis of suspension, form together an axis of oscillation parallel to the former; now the distance of the axis of oscillation is called the length of the compound pendulum. Hence, the length of a compound pendulum is the same as the length of a simple pendulum which performs its oscillations in the same time. Thus in the preceding figure of the compound pendulum, the point o is the centre or place of the axis of suspension, and op the length of the compound mass; all the points of this mass between o and c are retarded, and all the points between p and c are accelerated; but all the points at o are neither accelerated nor retarded, and therefore the point c is the centre or place of the axis of oscillation.

the axis of suspension; that is, if we suspend the pendulum by The axis of oscillation possesses the property of reciprocity with its axis of oscillation, the duration of the oscillations will be the same as before; in other words, the axis of suspension wil then become the axis of oscillation. By means of this property, the length of the compound pendulum can be found experimentally. This is done by inverting the pendulum and suspending it by means of a moveable axis, which is placed, after several triis, ir 1. In the same pendulum, the small oscillations are isochronous ; | such a manner that the number of oscillations performed in the

In treatises on Rational Mechanics, it is demonstrated that the oscillations of the simple pendulum are regulated by the four following laws.

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same time may be exactly the same as they were before its inversion. When this object has been attained, then the distance between the second axis of suspension and the first, is the true length required. If we now substitute the value thus obtained, instead of 1, in the formula relating to the simple pendulum, this formula becomes applicable to the compound pendulum, and the laws of oscillation are the same as those belonging to the simple pendulum.

as we have seen above, that gravity acts upon all bodies with the
same intensity. They also enable us to determine the intensity
of gravity at different points of the earth's surface, and conse-
quently the true form of the earth itself. The isochronism of
the oscillations renders it applicable as a regulator of timepieces.
Lastly, M. Foucaud has recently employed it in the experimental
demonstration of the diurnal rotation of the earth.
In order to measure the intensity of gravity by means of the pen-

The length of the seconds pendulum, that is, the pendulum
which beats 60 times in a minute, varies at every place, accord-dulum, we ascertain the value of 2g, from the equation t=π √.
ing to the intensity of the force of gravity at that place: thus,

at the Equator, it is

at London, it is

39.0137 inches;
30.1393

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By squaring both sides of this equation, we have t2=π2 2

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2g

2g Thus, we see that,

at 10° from the Pole, it is 39.2106 whence, by reduction, we have 2g = Verification of the Laws of the Pendulum.-The laws of the in order to find the value of 2g at any place, we must measure the simple pendulum can only be verified by means of the compound length of the compound pendulum at that place, and then the pendulum; and this is best done by constructing the latter in duration of its oscillations; this may be found by ascertaining such a manner that it may fulfil, as much as possible, the condi- how many oscillations it makes in a given number of seconds, tions of the former; as, for instance, by suspending at the end of a and dividing the latter number by the number of oscillations. very fine thread, a small sphere of an extremely dense substance, such as lead or platinum. A pendulum of this construction different points on the earth's surface. Hence, by calculation, we By such experiments the value of 2g has been determined at oscillates almost exactly like a simple pendulum, whose length is deduce from the value of 2g at each place, the distance of that place equal to the distance between the point of suspension and the from the centre of the earth, and "consequently the form of the centre of the small sphere.

In order to verify the law of the isochronism of small oscillations, a pendulum of the preceding construction is made to oscillate, and the number of oscillations which it performs in equal times is noted when the amplitude is 3o, 2o or 1°. By this means it is ascertained that the number of oscillations is in these cases exactly the same,

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In order to prove the second law, several pendulums B, D, C, fig. 17, are constructed as suggested above; that is, having their

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earth itself.

Huygens, a Dutch philosopher, was the first who applied the pendulum as a clock-regulator, in 1657, and the spiral spring to watches in 1675, When the pendulum is employed as a regulator, it is furnished with an anchor escapement, as explained in the description of Atwood's Machine.

LESSONS IN ITALIAN GRAMMAR.-No. VI.

By CHARLES TAUSENAU, M.D.,

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lengths in fine thread, equal and terminated in spheres of the same diameter, but of different substances, as lead, ivory, or brass. Neglecting the resistance of the air, it is found that all these pendulums make the same number of oscillations in the same time; whence it is inferred that gravity acts on all substances with the same intensity-a fact which has been formerly proved to the student.

The third law is verified by making pendulums oscillate, whose lengths are to one another respectively as the numbers 1, 4, 9, &c.; when it is found that the oscillations of these pendulums are to one another respectively as the numbers 1, 2, 3, &c. The fourth law, relating to the oscillations of pendulums, cannot be correctly proved by experiment.

Odoroso
Doloroso
Pomocotogno*
Tumultuo
Cuccurucu

Usufruttuo

dif-fee-tchee-lís-see-mee Very difficult

do-lo-ró-so

po-mo-ko-tón-nyo
too-móol-too-o
kook-koo-roo-kóo

oo-zoo-fróot-too-o

2. Words comprising the five vowels :-
Italian.
Affettuosi
Communicare

Pronounced.
ahf-fet-too-ó-si
kom-moo-nee-káh-rai

Fragrant, odorous
Painful, dolorous
Quince

I excite a tumult

A word imitating
the cock-crowing
I have or enjoy the
temporary use

English.
Kind, affectionate
To communicate

Uses of the Pendulum.—The oscillations of the pendulum show, ì The sound of the gn will be explained in another lesson

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English.

ciurma (tchóorr-mah), a mob, a crew of galley slaves; giallo Over-refined, deli- (jáhl-lo), yellow; giorno (jórr-no), day; giudice (jóo-dee-tchai), judge; giustizia (jao-stée-tzeeah), justice; giubilo (jóo-bee-lo), joy, jubilee.

cate

Enthusiasm

One who fulminates
They will flatter
A solicitor's wife
Republican

Very wholesome or
salubrious

tors

To subordinate

Highest, superla

tive

It is necessary that I should now explain with some degree of minuteness certain peculiarities of the most frequent occurrence, and consequently of the highest importance in the pronunciation of the letters c, g, and s, when they enter into certain combinations with other letters.

e

sco,

When c follows the letter s, thus forming the combination sc, and when at the same time it precedes the vowel a, o, and u, or the consonants and r, it will be clearly apparent that thec in this case will follow the general rule, and be sounded like k; as, sca, scu, scla, &c., scri, &c., pronounced skah, sko, skoo, sklah, &c., skree, &c. When, however, the combination se immediately Thinkers, specula- precedes the vowels e and i, the sound of the c is less compressed than without the s before it; and sc in such cases is sounded like sh in English words. The combinations sce and sci will be, therefore, pronounced shai, or shê and shee. But when c with an s before it, and with e or i to follow, is to retain the sound of k just as before a, o, and u, recourse is had to the same auxiliary letter h to indicate the preservation of the sound of c like k; and the combinations sche and schi are pronounced skai, or skê and skee. When on the other hand c with an s before it, and with the vowels a, o, and u to follow, is to be pronounced not like skah, sko, skoo, but like sh, recourse must be had to the letter i, which is interposed between sc and a, 0, and 2, just as in those cases where, as we have seen, c church before a, o, and u; and the combinations thus arising standing by itself, is to have the compressed sound of c in scia, scio, and sciu, will be pronounced shah, sho, and shoo. The previous observation holds good in this case likewise, that in more studied pronunciation the letter' is in these combinations slightly touched, though the voice must rapidly glide to the enunciation of the vowels a, o, and u. Examples:-scarpa (skáhrr-pah), shoe; scoppiare (skop-pêeah-rai), to burst, crack; scuffia (skóof-feeah), a woman's cap; scherno (skérr-no) mockery; schifare (skee-fáh-rai), to avoid, to have an aversion for; sclamare (sklah-máh-rai), to exclaim; scrivere (skrée-vaiscevro (shái-vro), rai), to write; scelto (shél-to), selected; separated; sciame (shah-mai), a swarm of bees; coscia (koshah), thigh; sciolto (shôl-to), ungirded; sciocco (shôk-ko), stupid; asciutto (ah-shóot-to), dry.

With regard to the letters c and g, I have already stated and illustrated by examples in the first pronouncing table, that when c and g are placed before the vowels a, o, and u, c is sounded like k, and g like the English g in the words game, go, and gull. But suppose that it should be necessary in the declension of nouns, the conjugation of verbs, &c., to give to the c and g before the vowels e and i the same sound that c and g have before a, o, and u; it is obvious that some sign must be used to mark that pronunciation of the e and g, and avoid confusion. This sign is no other than the letter h, which, as has been remarked, is a mere soundless, written sign, and on that account pre-eminently suited to the purpose. In this way we arrive at the combinations ch and gh; and from what has been said, it is obvious that the sound of ch before e and i can be no other than the sound of k; and the sound of gh before e and , that of g in the English words game, go, and gull. And, indeed, it is a fundamental rule of Italian grammar, which cannot be too strongly impressed on the mind of the reader, that whenever a grammatical necessity arises in the inflexions or terminational changes of a word, for retaining the sound of the c which in the root sounded like k, and the sound of g which in the root sounded like gin game, go, and gull, before the vowels e and i; h must be placed between c and g, and the vowels e and ¿, and the combinations thus resulting will be che, chi, and ghe, ghi, pronounced kai or kê, kee; gai or ghê, ghee. For example, banche (pronounced báhn-kai), banks, offices; stecchi (sték-kee), thorns, prickles; Tedeschi (tai-dái-skee), Germans; Furchi (toórr-kee), Turks; oche (ô-kai), geese; vecchio (vêkkeeo); an old man; perchè (per-kái), why; fianchi (feeáhnkee), flanks, sides; Gherardo (gai-ráhrr-do), Gerard; ghetto (ghét - to), a jewry; ghirlanda (ghirr - láhn- dah), garland; Ghibellino (ghi-bel-lée-no), Ghibellin; alberghi (ahl-bêrr-ghee), hotels; maghe (máh-gai), sorceresses; impieghi (im-peeê-ghee), employments.

с

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But suppose a necessity arises for giving to the letter c before a, o, and u the sound of c in the word church, and to g before a, u, and o the sound of g in ginger. Evidently a sign must be used to indicate that, or else c would be sounded like k, and g like g in game. Now this sign is the vowel i. In common conversation this is scarcely heard, serving the purpose only of a mere soundless, written sign; but in the more measured or studied pronunciation of the pulpit, the stage, public assemblies, and even frequently in the conversation of cultivated persons, the i is slightly touched in the enunciation, while the voice rapidly glides to the pronunciation of the vowels a, o, and u. Hence another fundamental rule of Italian, which goes side by side with the one above stated, that whenever a necessity arises for giving to the c before a, o, and u the compressed sound of c in the English word church, and to g before a, o, and u the compressed sound of g in ginger, the letter i (an auxiliary letter in this case) must be placed between c and the vowels a, o, and u, and between g and the vowels a, o, and u, and the combinations thus arising will be cia, cio, ciu, and gia, gio, giu, pronounced tchah, tcho, tchoo, and jah, jo, joo. For example, ciascuno (tchah-skóo-no), every body; ciancia (tcháhn-tchah), foolery; cio (tchô), that, what; cioe (tchoê), that is to say; braccio (bráht-tcho), arm; ciuffo (tchóof-fo), I catch, I snap;

The combinations gl, gn, and some others, I shall explain by notes, as they occur in the next pronouncing table.

SKETCHES FOR YOUNG THINKERS. (Continued from page 55.)

CHAPTER II.

MORAL EXCELLENCE,

Ir is the object of this chapter to show that Goodness is better than Greatness, and to define the meaning of true wisdom. We have already seen how men can overcome difficulties in intellectual pursuits, and rise superior to social circumstances; we now turn to inquire, whether moral excellence is dependent or independent of the influences by which we are surrounded. In the outset, the ground, and show the position which we occupy. Mental one or two explanatory observations may be necessary to shorten and moral excellence are by no means antagonistic or incompatible. In thousands of instances they have been found in the same individual, brightening, strengthening, and regulating each other. Too frequently have ability and vice been associated, as if they were almost inseparable. No mistake can be more egregious. Facts bear out the statement, that many of the brightest ornaments of the race have been among the most virtuous, godly, and exemplary characters. Without further introductory remark, we proceed to substantiate this proposition. The cases referred to will be treated with much the same brevity as in the former chapter, since they are quoted as corroborative and illustrative, rather than as biographies of the persons whose names are recorded.

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Of CYRUS, the Lord said :-"He is my shepherd and shall perform all my pleasure." He is universally regarded as the most accomplished prince whose name profane history has handed down to us. His intellect was gigantic, and his skill in controversy only equalled by his power in execution. The Almighty chose him as the instrument of punishing wicked nations, and carrying out

1

His own inscrutable designs. We will not follow him through all the devious way along which he walked, but will come to his deathbed, and hear his dying words. History tells us that he convened his children, and the chief officers of state, and gave expression to many excellent observations. He appointed his son Cambyses to be his successor, and observed "that the chief strength and support of the throne were not vast extent of country, number of forces, nor immense riches, but just veneration towards God, good understanding between brethren, and the acquisition of true and faithful friends." These sentiments were highly honourable to the mind and heart of this magnanimous Persian king. It would be unfair to judge him by the standard of the nineteenth century, but if we carefully collate the history of the times in which he lived, and minutely watch his extraordinary career, we must be satisfied that he combined, in no ordinary degree, a cultivated mind and a heart steadfastly fixed on the purposes of God,

wise than my duty requires." He bravely suffered, he drank the hemlock, and died in the possession of perfect peace. These instances, quoted from the history of heathen philosophy, abundantly testify that mental and moral excellence can exist in the same individual. Others might be quoted in profusion, but if those already given tend to arouse the inquisitiveness of the young thinker, and lead him to examine the historical records himself, the object of the writer will be completely answered. If these men, living in barbarous ages, were distinguished for learning and virtue, does it not become a serious question, what manner of persons ought we to be? They lived early in the morning, with no light but the feeble glimmering of the stars, and that light often obscured by the murky gloom and vapour of superstition and folly; and we live at a time when the sun of intelligence and virtue is bathing the world in a flood of meridian splendour! True, at that period there were many learned and noble men, there were also numerous resorts of learning; but CONFUCIUS, the renowned philosopher of China, is always no man of moderate intelligence will contend that the same pointed to as an example of the union of intellectual and moral facilities existed then as do now. They had the Academy, the excellence, and, we think, with some fair show of propriety. Lyceum, and various schools of learning, but they had no Judging him by the light of the New Testament, our estimate of Mechanics' Institutes, no peoples' reading rooms, they had not his character might be comparatively low; but when we remem- that free and mighty press which causes 'learning to "flow as a ber that he was born upwards of 550 years before the incarnation river," and popular intelligence "as the waves of the sea. of Christ, we are amazed at the beauty of many of his maxims, Learning was then the privilege of the few; Pythagoras was conand applaud much of his wonderful philosophy. In his childhood tent to lecture behind a curtain, without condescending to appear he is said to have been grave, affectionate, and obedient, and before his disciples. But now we live in a different age; the always to have offered his food to the "Supreme Lord of heaven," oligarchy of literature is abolished, the curtain is removed, the before venturing to partake of it himself. To his relations he press is at full work, and no man need be ignorant who has the ever paid the most patriotic regard; he commenced at twenty-three perseverance to acquire knowledge. Men must be tried according years of age to introduce a general reformation of manners. An to the advantages which they have possessed. The law is inelegant writer has well said of Confucius, that "he was every-violable, that "to whom much is given, of him shall much be where known; his integrity and the splendour of his virtues made required." According to this law, and it is a just one, how great him beloved. Kings were governed by his counsels, and the people is the condemnation of those who are content to dwell in the lowreverenced him as a saint." Be his tenets what they may, his lands of ignorance, narrow-mindedness, and bigotry, instead of historians have not failed to chronicle one fact which will ever rising to the mountain-top of knowledge, magnanimity, and largeredound to his credit. He was no hypocrite; what he taught to heartedness. A cheap literature, an instructive lecture-room, and others he invariably practised himself. His sincerity was trans- a liberal education are among the chief glories of the century in parent; his countrymen had implicit confidence in his fidelity, which we live. It is an age of progress, not of power; of learning, and many of them courageously avowed themselves his disciples, not of fighting; of schools, art, and union, not of soldiers, arms, and walked according to his laws. He expired in the seventy- and discord. The young thinker has much to do with this state third year of his age, greatly lamented by thousands of survivors. of society; it is from his ranks that all vacancies are to be supLet this Chinese philosopher be fairly judged in a spirit of candour, plied, that all offices in civil, political, and religious society are to and few will be the men who will deny that he was the wonder be discharged, therefore his mind must be filled with information, of his age, and worthy of more praise than some are willing to and strengthened by severe and searching discipline. render.

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Turning from China to Greece, we find there SOCRATES, who has been justly designated the greatest of the ancient heathen philosophers. Socrates was pre-eminently a practical man. He possessed wonderful natural talents, and a most extraordinary amount of knowledge. He was at once a profound philosopher, an honourable citizen, and a popular instructor. He looked at philosophy, however, as a means rather than an end; hence he lived out his learning in his everyday transactions. He was not fond of wasting his energies in abstruse speculations and learned refinements; he sought rather to be useful, to elevate his species, and to dignify philosophy, by showing how applicable it was to all the affairs of practical lite. His benevolence was as remarkable as his learning was extraordinary. To all who applied, he communicated his knowledge freely; in house, market, or prison, he was alike ready to instruct, encourage, and bless his fellow-men. It is even recorded of him, that he "instructed his pupils without any gratuity." The chief men of Athens were his stewards; they sent him provisions as they apprehended he wanted them. He took what his present necessities required, and returned the rest. Observing at a particular time the numerous articles of luxury which were exposed to sale at Athens, he exclaimed : 'How many things are here which I do not want!' Good man! he fell a victim to the wounded pride and villany of some of his countrymen, and was condemned to die! In these circumstances we will presently see one of the most overwhelming proofs that moral excellence is independent of social position, and superior to the fear of death. One of his most violent persecutors privately informed him, that if he would desist from censuring his conduct, that steps should be immediately taken to prevent his execution. How did the philosopher now act? Did his cowardly heart quail at the prospect of death? "No!" Socrates replied, with the dignity of a philosopher and the confidence of injured innocence; "whilst I live I will never disguise the truth. nor speak other

We now come to the Christian era, and briefly refer to a few more examples bearing out the subject under discussion. The first name which meets our eye, as particularly worthy of observation, is that of IGNATIUS, who was born in Syria, and afterwards became Bishop of Antioch. History represents him as having been brought up under the supervision of the Apostle John, and occupying the bishoprie of Antioch for upwards of forty years. Such a man of eminent piety and learning was not to be tolerated in that age of ferocity and persecution. The Emperor Trajan knew him, and had cruelly designed to put him to death. He was ordered to be thrown among wild beasts, to be devoured by them. Did his moral excellence desert him in the prospect of this cruel fate? Far from it. Instead of cooling his zeal, it only tended to increase the fervour of his love, and in the fulness of his heart he blessed his God that he had been found worthy of such a death. He joyfully undertook his voyage to Rome; he begged the prayers of his fellow-Christians, and before being thrown to the savage beasts that were to destroy him, he cheeringly said: "Now indeed I begin to be a disciple; I weigh neither visible nor invisible things in comparison of an interest in Jesus Christ.' He met his antagonists, and exchanged mortality for life.

Immediately following Ignatius is the name of the venerable POLYCARP. He succeeded Ignatius in Antioch, and discharged every duty with characteristic fidelity and apostolic zeal. He lived in troublous times. In 167, Smyrna was raging with persecution, and the bloodthirsty opponents of Christianity cried for vengeance on Polycarp. He was brought in old age before the tribunal of the proconsul, and with unfaltering confidence avowed his attachment to Christian truth. On being requested to deny the truth and disavow the Lord Jesus, he boldly answered: "Eighty and six years have I served Christ, and he has never deserted me; how then can I blaspheme my King and Saviour ?" Trembling with age, he was brought to the stake; he poured out his heart in fervent prayer, and his ransomed soul rode inte

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