the doing or being,' is the grammatical Predicate; and that which names the thing which 'does or is,' is the Subject, as "The heart which trusts [Subject] for ever sings [Predicate].” Obs. Although the division of a sentence into subject and predicate is an analysis, it is generally necessary to have analysis carried to a much greater length, as may be seen in the ensuing pages. 30. The Classification of the functional elements is based on the two great divisions of a sentence, viz. the subject and the predicate, thus Whatever can stand alone as the subject of a sentence is a Substantival; and Whatever can stand alone as the predicate of a sentence is a Verb. But verbs and substantivals are not the only possible elements, for they may require limitation or definition, thus Whatever can limit a substantival,―otherwise than in respect of place, time, cause, or manner, is an Adjectival. Whatever can limit a verb is an Adverbial. And whatever can attach or link together words, phrases, or clauses, is a Connective. Hence we have Verbs, Connectives, Substantivals, Adjectivals, and Adverbials. But although the most characteristic functions of all of these have just been given, yet the three last discharge such a variety of functions, that it is necessary to adopt a more or less satisfactory system of terminology by which to distinguish them. This system appears in the subjoined table, and will be explained hereafter in the course of this work. Adverbials to verb, adjective, or adverb. [Characteristic function]. The words, phrases, and clauses, of which these functional elements most commonly consist may be tabulated as follows: y. Substantivals : Noun, Any adjectival, adverbial, &c., used absolutely, i.e. as a Noun. Pronoun. Verbal-Nouns, i.e. an Infinitive or Gerund. Verbal-Noun Phrase, i.e. an Infin. or Ger. with belongings. oblique assertion. Noun used as adjective, e.g. Noun of Material. Adjective-pronoun { demonstrative adj. possessive Cardinal, e.g. an, one, two. Numeral Adjectives Ordinal, e.g. first, other, second. Indefinite, e.g. all, many, few. Adjectival Case, usually Possessive. Verbal-Adjective, i.e. a Participle. Participial Phrase, i.e. participle with belongings. Adjectival Prepositional-Phrase = adjectival case. 31. A Word, i.e. ' a part of speech,' must in our analysis be understood to include all sorts of compounds. Thus frying-pan, coffee-mill, make-shift, day's-man, general-odd-jobman, are taken as single nouns ;-snow-white, never-to-beforgotten, are taken as single adjectives;—and now-a-days, in order, all-of-a-heap, through-and-through, are taken as single adverbs. 32. A Phrase may be generally described as a combination of words, which, while conveying an Idea rest short of conveying a Thought; e.g. 'before the house,' 'after writing to you,' 'singing songs,' 'spring having come.' Hence a phrase never contains a finite verb. Obs. In such sentences as 'He spoke of what you had done for him,' 'I can give you no information concerning who were there,' we seem to have a contradiction of the statement that a phrase never contains a finite verb; but in analyzing the above sentences we take 'what' and 'who' as complex relatives [§ 104] equivalent to that which' and 'those who.' Hence the prepositions of' and 'concerning' do not govern the clauses, but only the latent antecedents of the clauses. Again, in such sentences as 'I did it, after that you departed,' 'He stood in her presence, before that she knew of his arrival,' the words 'after' and 'before' are not prepositions, but subordinate conjunctions [§ 108] introducing adverbial clauses on a principle explained in § 108, Obs. 2, d. For more on this see § 104, Obs. 2. 33. A Clause may be regarded as a little sentence within a big one; so that it invariably contains a finite verb. Clauses may be tabulated as follows: but it must be remembered that one dependent clause may be co-ordinate with another. When there is no ellipsis, a Coordinate clause is marked by a co-ordinate conjunction. When there is no ellipsis, a Dependent clause is usually marked by the demonstrative 'that,' if it be a noun clause. Obs. Whenever a Sentence includes two or more little sentences, it is convenient to describe not only the dependent, but also the main sentences, as 'Clauses.' By so doing we leave the word 'Sentence' to express that complete thought which is properly terminated by a full stop. Thus we shall speak of the complete Sentence Thomas went away, but John remained,' as consisting of two co-ordinate main clauses: and of the complete sentence 'I did it, because you asked me,' as consisting of a main and a subordinate clause. 34. The Direct and Oblique construction. We have already seen [§ 27] that the Thought expressed by a sentence invariably consists of an assertion, petition, or question. The Thought is usually independent, and expressed as coming directly from the thinker. When this is the case, we have that form of construction which is termed Direct. The Thought is however sometimes dependent, inasmuch as it may form the subject, object, or complement, of a verb, or the apposite of a noun or pronoun. When thus used it may be either quoted or described. If Quoted, the direct construction remains, and the sentence so quoted may be included within inverted commas. But if Described, that, which formed the main clause in the direct construction, becomes a mere noun clause, with perchance adjectival and adverbial clauses depending upon it. When a thought is thus "described," we have that form of construction which is termed Oblique. The direct and oblique constructions are essentially different, although they may be accidentally similar,—especially when the tense of the direct clause happens to be of the same nature [i.e. primary or historic] as the tense of the verb on which the oblique clause depends. This essential difference and accidental resemblance of person and tense are best illustrated in the following table, where the three direct assertions ‘I am going,' 'Thou art going,' 'He is going,' are cast into every possible oblique form, according to the altered stand-point of the speaker. |