When the direct object becomes the subject of the passive verb, the cognate object remains to the perplexity of those who have failed to draw a distinction between a cognate and a direct object. Thus we say 'The horse was struck a blow [cog.]'; The boy was taught geography [cog.].'

52. Indirect Objects [as we understand them in this book'] consist of any Adverbials,—words, phrases, or clauses, —which may be essential to the full expression of the verbal notion, e.g. 'I heard the thunder [cog. or dir.] roll, rolling, arolling, when it was rolling [ind.].' 'She gave a loaf [cog.] to him [ind.].' 'He had begged for food [ind.] from her [ind.].' They escaped from the sword [ind.].' 'We escaped from drowning [ind.].' 'He kept us [dir.] from falling [ind.].' 'The accident deprived him [dir.] of sight [ind.].' They accused him [dir.] of ambition [ind.].' 'The city was reduced to ashes [ind.].' 'I dealt with the grocer [ind.].' 'He arose from sleep [ind.].'

Obs. A few predicative adjectives, such as like, unlike, likely, unlikely, are followed by adverbials essential to their meaning, and to such adverbials we allow the name of Indirect objects. See § 66.

53. Indirect objects often consist of a mere noun or pronoun; so that, at first sight, it is difficult to recognise them as adverbials. Such nouns and pronouns however discharge the functions of, and actually represent, adverbial cases ; although the old case endings have generally been rubbed off during the lapse of many centuries. A noun or pronoun discharging the adverbial function of an indirect object almost always admits of the addition of a preposition before it. Thus

1 And also in Morell's Grammar. The term 'Indirect' is sometimes limited to the Dative completion of a verb, expressive of the Remoter Object affected by such acts, as, giving, telling, &c. We however think it best to make a familiar term cover a large class of phenomena, which require to be labelled in some sort of way.

F

'He gave [to] her a loaf.' 'He asked [for] bread from her.' 'He escaped [from] the sword. 'He departed [from] this life.'

Obs.-The student must not expect that these prepositions afford an invariable clue by which to discover the O.E. case. The shades of meaning contained in the verb have frequently changed to so great an extent, that the case or preposition, which was once appropriate, has now become completely inapplicable. Thus, while we now say 'I wonder at-you,' in O.E. the sentence would be 'I wonder of you.' And even more recently we find, 'I am independent on-you` becoming 'I am independent of-you.'

54. Verbs of petition [e.g. petition, beg, command, &c.] often have indirect objects telling to whom the petition is made or from whom the thing is sought. Usage, or the reminiscence of some former shade of meaning, occasionally precludes the addition of a preposition to some of these indirect objects, or has even left them in O.E. to be sometimes expressed by an accusative [§ 41, Obs. 3]; but in absence of any adverbial case inflections in modern English, we shall, on a mere logical ground, do well always to classify the person, to whom the petition is made or from whom the thing is sought, as an indirect object,—-discharging a dative or ablative function. Thus, 'I commanded him [= to him] to go.' 'I beg of you [= from you] that they may come.'

Obs. When the person indicated by this indirect object happens to be the same person as forms the subject of the cognate noun clause, the cognate noun clause is usually contracted into an infinitive with its belongings, as, 'I beg of you that you will come home' I beg of-you to come home. 'I command [to] you that should go'

you

=

=

I command [to] you to go.

55. We often speak of perceiving Something to be in a state of action. Hence verbs of Perception, e.g. perceive, detect, see, feel, hear, &c., are often followed by an adverbial, serving to indicate the sphere of action in which the said Something is for the time being as it were located, e.g. 'I saw the house fall [= a-falling].' 'The house was seen to fall [a-falling, or, as it fell].'

These adverbials are by some grammarians all classed as Indirect objects: but we shall not class them so, unless they are essential to the meaning of the verb. Looked at in this light, the only verbs of perception, which clearly imply that their subject or object is in a certain sphere, are the verbs of hearing, for it is of course impossible to hear anything, unless it is in a sphere of action, viz. of noise-making. Hence verbs of hearing are completed by an Indirect object, e.g. 'I heard him [dir.] sing [ind.].' 'She was heard a-sobbing [ind.].' 'We heard the lion [dir.] when it roared [ind.].'

Obs. The sequence of an accusative and infinitive in such sentences as, 'I saw the ship sink,' 'I heard the thunder roll,' is sometimes taken as an illustration of the classical acc. c. infin. construction [§ 41, Obs. 2]; but we cannot so regard it, inasmuch as we do not consider 'I saw the ship sink [i.e. as it sank]' to be exactly the same thing as 'I saw that the ship sank.'

56. Verbs of giving, e.g. give, bestow, impart, send, &c.; of receiving, e.g. receive, obtain, acquire, &c.; of association, e.g. associate, company, &c.; are usually followed by an Indirect object of the person to whom something is given, from whom something is received, or with whom something is performed, as 'I gave the book [cog.] to him [indirect].' 'I received the letter [cog.] from her [ind.].' 'I associate with gentlemen [ind.].'

Obs. There are many other verbs, unmentioned here, which are followed by indirect objects. In fact any adverbial which supplies a latent implication of place, time, cause, or manner, in the meaning of the verb, is an Indirect object. Thus the verb 'give' implies a [dative] recipient; the verb 'receive' implies an [ablative] source; the verb 'associate' implies a companion; the verb 'depart' implies an [ablative] startingpoint; and so on.

57. The Infinitive [see §§ 25, 85] is a verbal-noun capable of discharging a limited number of case functions. What these case functions may be, is best discovered by replacing the infinitive by a gerund in accordance with the following table:

Thus if 'to shout' can [without an ellipsis] be replaced by 'shouting' it must be either discharging a nominative or accusative function; if it be replaced by 'to or for shouting,' it may be taken as discharging a dative function; and if replaced by a-shouting, it may be taken as discharging a locative function.

Obs.-The student may generally distinguish the Nom. and Acc. Gerund from a participle, by seeing if he can replace it by an infinitive.

58. The Infinitive serves as the Subject of a sentence, or it would not be a substantival. It is then discharging the function of a nominative, as To hear is to obey.'

59. The Infinitive serves as the Complement of the copula verb, as 'To hear is to obey'

60. The Infinitive serves as a Cognate Object after many verbs. It is then discharging the function of an accusative, as 'She was taught to dance.' 'He does love.' 'Let him go''

'His lord commanded to sell him' hláford gesyllan.'

=

in O.E. 'Hine hét his

61. The Infinitive sometimes serves as a Direct Object, as 'She liked to ride.' 'We commenced to study.'

ye to say ' in O.E. 'ponne ongynne ge cweðan.'

Then begin

62. The Infinitive often serves as an Indirect Object. It is then almost always discharging the functions of a dative or of a locative case [but see § 85].

When discharging a dative function, it has often replaced a cognate object, and tells the purpose instead of the purport of

=

an act [§ 47], as 'And Pharisees... preiden hym for to shewe...' Wycliffe And the Pharisees... prayed him to shew. When he hadde commandid the companye for to sitte' Wycliffe = When he had commanded the company to sit.'

When discharging a locative function, it usually tells the sphere of action within which, and by means of which, some object is perceived, as 'I heard him shout.' 'We heard him say' in O.E. 'We gehýrdon hine secgan.'

=

6

63. We have in the above sections seen the infinitives of various verbs used as the subjects, complements, cognate objects, direct objects, and indirect objects, of some finite verb; and we now observe that the infinitive of the copula verb forms no exception to other infinitives, and may therefore be used in just the same way. The one peculiarity of this verb arises from that loss of meaning, which obliges it to be completed by a complement. Thus in 'To be healthy is to be happy. He commanded them to be quiet.' 'She began to be funny.' 'He was perceived to be ill,' the infinitive 'to be' would be the real subject, complement, cognate, direct, or indirect object, if it were not for its loss of meaning. As it is, we must take the infinitive along with its complement, as discharging those various functions. Thus, "To be healthy [subject] is [copula] to be happy' [complement]. And in the same way we must avoid separating the 'to be' from those participial complements, by the union of which we express the different tenses of the infinitive [§ 25].

Obs.-There is no connection between the case function of the infinitive and the case function of the complement. The case of the former depends upon the governing verb, the case of the latter depends upon that of the noun or pronoun with which it is in apposition or attribution. Although our case system has almost disappeared, yet it is well to allow ourselves to speak of agreement,' just as if the marks of that agreement still remained. The agreement of the complement of the infinitive is with that noun or pronoun, which serves to indicate what would be the