but also the modern Hindoos, Persians, French, Spaniards, Germans, and English, besides many more. REMARKS ON SOME OF THE LEADING PHENOMENA IN THE GROWTH OF OUR ARYAN FORM OF SPEECH. 7. The ultimate linguistic elements, into which science has succeeded in reducing speech, consist of significant syllables called Roots. If we lay aside a few imitative sounds, these may be divided into two classes, viz. Predicative and Demonstrative or Pointing roots. 8. Predicative Roots are single syllables, originally associated with a variety of actions, such as striking, rubbing, pushing, ploughing, measuring, &c. It is probable that by means of arrangement, accent, and intonation, these predicative roots may have risen to the dignity of words, but, if so, we have no trace of such a stage in the Aryan family of speech, and have for actual illustrations to turn to Chinese, where a predicative root may appear as noun, verb, adjective, or adverb. 9. Demonstrative or Pointing Roots1 are single syllables expressive of position in relation to the speaker. We may describe them as pointing words, inasmuch as they must at first have always been coupled with the act of pointing. These pointing roots or words were three in number, but most naturally lent themselves to the expression of several analogous triplets. Thus they came to serve for Obs. In Book ii. Chap. i. of the New Cratylus, Dr. Donaldson shows that Pronouns in general were originally all Demonstrative. Hence They are also called 'Pronominal roots' and 'Pronominal elements.' they must all have their first beginnings in the above pointing roots. Their variations depend on the usages of syntax rather than on their original significance. 10. The Combination of Predicative and Pointing Roots was the first great step in word formation, for the meaning of a sentence was thus saved from depending exclusively on accent, intonation, arrangement, and the exercise of the hearer's imagination. Thus if a predicative root expressive of shining' were combined with the three pointing roots, used in the sense of I, thou,' and 'he,' the three persons of a finite Verb would be formed having the force of I shine, or am shining. Thou shinest, or art shining. He shines, or is shining. Again, if the same predicative root were combined with the three pointing roots, used in the sense of This here,'' this near here, and that there,' certain forms of a primitive Noun1 would arise, equivalent to This here shines, or is shining, This near here shines, or is shining, That there shines, or is shining; and two of these forms 2 would [when the difference between subject and object was realised] become available for the expression of the nominative and accusative cases. 1 'What we now call a Noun was originally a kind of sentence, consisting of the root and some so-called suffix which pointed to something of which that root was predicated.'-Max Müller's Hibbert Lectures for 1878, p. 191. 2 Donaldson [Greek Gr. § 152] says that the Nominative termination is derived from its second pointing root, while the Accusative is derived from the third. If, however, the formation of the verb and noun had been quite as simple as this, there would still have been nothing to distinguish some of the cases of the noun from some of the persons of the verb. But, as it appears that all verbs were at first reflexive [i.e. in the middle voice], we may conjecture that the persons of the verb were in part distinguished from the cases of the noun by the doubling of the appropriate pronominal root. The difference between the noun and verb was however still more clearly indicated by the gradual introduction of the formative suffixes described in the next section. 11. Suffixes are of two kinds, viz. inflectional and formative. Inflectional Suffixes are the terminations which mark the cases, &c. of nouns, and the persons, &c. of verbs; and they must have had their first beginnings, as before described [§ to], in the addition of pointing to predicative roots. Formative Suffixes are the worn down remains of words, which, though their meaning may be hopelessly lost, still retain the power of marking the part of speech to which a word primarily belongs. When added to a Predicative root they formed what is known as the Stem of a noun, verb, &c., and were followed by the inflectional suffix. There are verbs remaining which have never had a verbal formative-suffix inserted between the root and the personal inflection; because, when the corresponding noun had been marked by its nounsuffix, there was no need to add any further mark to the verb. Since the almost entire loss of our Old English inflectional suffixes, our verbs and nouns consist for the most part of variously constructed stems. 12. Almost all Aryan words are compounds, but only a small portion of these can be broken up into separately significant parts without the aid of science. These Separable Compounds, if we lay aside a miscellaneous crowd of chance agglutinations, consist for the most part of an inflected noun, verbal noun, adjective, participle, or verb, preceded1 by one or more uninflected words. But of all these combinations the scope of this present work only requires us to notice a single class, viz. that in which the uninflected word consists of the stem of a noun or verbal-noun. Such stems are not only prefixed to nouns, verbal-nouns, adjectives, participles, and verbs, but also to other noun stems to such an extent, that in Sanskrit a compound word will sometimes contain as many as a dozen isolated stems, and in English three or even four may form a compound not altogether beyond our comprehension, as for example In all such compounds the prefixed stems stand to the following word or stem in the relation of one or other of the oblique cases; and, except in the accusative relation, may always be replaced by an equivalent adjectival or adverbial phrase standing after instead of before the superior word. When the compounds contain only one noun-stem [as is generally now the case], they are capable of receiving a convenient set of names based on the consideration of the peculiar casefunction discharged by the prefixed stem. This terminalogy appears in brackets in the following series of examples, where compound nouns, adjectives, participles, and verbs, are grouped apart. 1 In Aryan speech the determinant precedes the thing determined; we say for instance, river-horse, not horse-river; sea-captain, not captain-sea : in Semitic speech on the other hand, the thing determined precedes the determinant, e.g. Samuel = 'asked-God,' but the corresponding Aryan word by which Josephus renders it means 'God-asked.' See Farrar's Families of Speech, Chap. iii. Compare Public School Latin Gr. § 60. Compound Nouns : A sheep-shearing [a genitive compound] = a shearing of sheep. steam. = fruit from gardens. So far as our analysis is concerned we must treat all such compounds as single words,-nouns, adjectives, participles, or verbs, according as the final word is one or other of these parts of speech. Obs. 1.-The fact that almost all modern English nouns are merely stems, obliges us to turn to languages like Latin, Greek, and Sanskrit, for Aryan compounds serving to prove that the prefixed words do properly appear, as stems. We are helped however to realize that our prefixed |