Cause

Initial Cause:-hence, thence, whence, thereupon, therefrom, v. Ground wherefore; He died of hunger, He suffered from asthma; Spring having come the flowers bloom;

I sang because you requested me.

Final Cause:longed for you, strove after success, plotted against v. Purpose the king, good for nothing, fit to die, ready for killing, He did that to succeed; He did that in order that he might succeed.

Condition :-conditionally; He would do it if you were present. Concession:-notwithstanding, nevertheless, however; He would do it though you were absent.

Quality :-well, badly, highly, lowly, gladly, sadly, ignorantly, knowingly.

Quantity:-much, little, very, singly, doubly, trebly, fourfoldly, half, slightly, scarcely, partly, greatly, exceedingly, solely, merely, only, far.

Degree:—so, as, the, too, almost, well nigh, nearly, hardly, enough, sufficiently, quite, equally, exactly;

worried to death; more, most, less, least, -er (comparative suffix), -est (super. suffix).

Similarity :—He did not do so well as I hoped. He appeared as tall as I expected. The more he strove the more they resisted.

Dissimilarity :-He ran badly in comparison with Jack; It is more than I expected. It is less than you said. He is a taller man than you.

Manner. Effect :-It was made so high that it fell.

Agency:-1 did it through you.

Instrumentality :-cut with a knife, burnt by fire, borne of four.
Association :-I worked with him.

Dissociation :-I finished it without her.

Substitution :-I gave a shilling for this, He died for us, We walked instead of riding.

Opposition :- They fought against Cæsar.

Cumulation:-Then you have done that also, likewise, too. Hypothesis-possibly, perchance, haply, perhaps, peradventure, probably, maybe, mayhap.

Negation :-not, not a whit, not a bit, not at all, not in the least, in no wise, in no respect, by no means, on no

account. [For Yes and No, see Obs. 31.

Reference :-concerning you.

&c., &c.

As is seen in the above table, the adverbial functions are discharged by various classes of adverbials, i.e. by prepositional phrases, the comparative suffix, nouns used with the force of old adverbial cases, the nominative absolute, the infinitive, and adverbial clauses; but the student will observe that any special function can seldom be discharged by more than a very few of these classes of adverbials.

Thus, for example, if I say 'Revolutionary principles spread with great rapidity in France,' and if I want to add some information as to the temporal starting-point of this rapid movement, I can do so either by the use of an adverb or adverbial prepositional phrase, e.g.

'Thenceforth revolutionary principles spread, &c.,'

'From 1780 revolutionary principles spread, &c.,' but the same sort of temporal idea can be expressed neither by a comparative suffix, case function, nominative absolute, infinitive, nor clause.

Again, if I say 'He died,' and if I want to tell the Initial Cause of his death, I may do so either by an adverb, adverbial prepositional phrase, nominative absolute, or subordinate clause, e.g.

'He died therefrom.'

'He died from starvation.'

'The food having been exhausted, he died.'

'He died, because there was no food.'

But the same sort of causal idea can be expressed neither by a suffix, case function, nor infinitive.

The classes of adverbials most commonly used to discharge any special function are indicated in the following table, either by the insertion of some illustration, or by the reference to some section where an illustration is to be found.

Obs. 1.-It is quite impossible to make a hard and fast Classification of Adverbials. Through the influence of metaphor, analogy, and the practical equivalence of many ideas, the same adverbial often serves for two very different functions [as, 'with a dog,' which may express either Instrumentality or Association], or even allows the same adverbial simultaneously to discharge two or more different functions [as, 'seriously,' which may at the same moment express either Quality or Degree: and as, 'I am happy, when I see you,' where the adverbial Clause simultaneously expresses either temporal Location, Initial Cause, or Condition, for when1 I see you,' may

= 'because I see you,' and 'if1 I see you.'].

Obs. 2. The adverbials of Quality and Quantity represent the adjectivals of quality and quantity belonging to the noun contained in the verb. Thus in 'It surprises me greatly,' there is 'surprise' contained in the verb, and it is a great surprise.' Again in 'He saw doubly,' the 'sight' was 'double. For more on this point see § 76 Obs. 2.

Obs. 3.—' Yes,' 'yea,' and 'No,' 'nay,' are often classed as adverbials but we shall not regard them as such, inasmuch as they never limit verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs. But, inasmuch as they represent entire sentences, we shall class them as Interjections.2 Some four centuries ago according to Sir T. More3 the most accurate use of these words was as follows:

'Yea' and 'Nay' have recently dropped out of use; and 'Yes' and 'No' have acquired a variety of meanings which vary according to the acquiescent, deliberative, incredulous, or 'contradictory, tone of voice with which they are pronounced. Thus in reply to the affirmative statement 'It is certain,'

1 The easy transition from 'Time' to 'Condition' is seen by the way in which the 'if' of the protasis is often correlated with 'then' in the apodosis, as Then I will do it, if you wish.'

2 According to the Primer of Philology [Ch. vi. Sec. 10] an Interjection "is in itself a whole speech, though undeveloped and vague."

3 See Sir T. More's Confutation of Tyndale in Skeat's Specimens of English Literature, p. 191.