to its under side, to act as a driver for the pendulous ball: between the two wheels, and communicating with them, is a third wheel, fixed upon a spindle placed horizontally, and connected at one end to the vertical spindle, so as to turn round it; the other end is supported by a carriage resting upon a plate, and is connected to a spring or counterweight on one side, and on the other side to the throttle-valve; the ball being suspended from a spherical bearing near the top of the rod.

The spring is adjusted

so that when the velocity of the engine is as required, the upper and lower wheels revolve at the same speed: when the velocity increases, the centrifugal force causes the ball to rise, and retards the motion of the lower wheel; then the intermediate wheel distends the spring, and moves forward upon the lower wheel as a rack, and closes the throttle-valve: when the velocity diminishes, the ball falls, and the lower wheel requires less power, so that the spring pulls back the intermediate wheel and opens the valve. The above is a modification of Mr. James Wood's governor, and is patented by Mr. C. W. Siemans Chrysolite, a precious stone, probably

the tenth on the high priest's pectoral, bearing the name of Zebulon: it is transparent, the colour of gold, with a mixture of green, which displays a fine lustre

Chuck, a piece of wood or metal fixed

on the end of the mandril for keeping fast the body to be turned Church Music. By this term is commonly understood all music set to words of a sacred character: hence we have not only the language of Scripture set to music in the shape of anthems, &c., but also metrical versions and paraphrases thereof, used and considered by many as church music. Indeed it too often happens that these are adapted to secular melodies-melodies not originally intended to be applied to

words of a sacred character, and yet the music is then termed sacred, probably from an idea that there is no such thing as sacred and profane music. But this is a great error, and arises solely from ignorance of the existence of sacred music,-we mean especially church music. Examine any of the ancient authorized liturgical books, and there will be found an order of music that cannot be mistaken for profane, which is not only sacred in its character, but eminently grand, dignified, noble, and sublime; in short, it is for church purposes so superior to all other music, that it alone can properly be called church music.

Church music is the music of the holy offices, is that music in which the whole church, priests and people, can participate. It is easy to execute, being simple and plain (plain chant). It can be sung by every one, and is always most majestic when sung by all; hence it is also called the full chant (cantus plenus). For a long period, and until very lately, scarcely a remnant of church music was to be found, even in those places where we had a right to expect to find it: the plain chant was banished entirely in some places, and mutilated in others, so that it could scarcely be discerned; but it is now being restored, and we hear the priest intoning his part in the offices of morning and evening prayer, and the people singing, in response, the ancient authorized melodies of the church; we hear the Psalter chanted to fine old (so called) Gregorian tones;—we hear the Litany chanted to its own proper music, that of the church: we also hear the soul-stirring music in the Communion office, the Gloria in excelsis, the Credo, and Sanctus; the latter moreover in its proper place. We can have also, if so disposed, the church music for the matrimonial, baptismal, and burial offices, as well as an immense variety of tunes for the metrical psalms, of a

true church character, unlike any other kind of music, and which is truly church music, inasmuch as it is the church's peculiar property, and would be totally misused in any other place. Our definition of church music is, music which is adapted for the services and purposes of the church, and unfit for any other place or purpose.

Church music, such as is here shortly defined, is unisonous; and harmonized music is not fit for congregational purposes; it is proper only in those parts of divine worship which may be called extraliturgical, such as the anthem. Singing harmonized chants, canticles, Te Deum, &c., is thrusting out the congregation, that is, the chief part of the church present. The harmonies should be left entirely to the discretion of an intelligent organist, to be executed on the organ alone. Harmonized music requires accomplished and wellinformed musicians for its performance, and can be sung only by the few. The anthem, in cathedral worship, is edifying only when it is performed by the choir-men in a masterly manner, not only with correct musical execution, but with care and attention, to develop all the piety, sublimity, grandeur, dignity, and whatever else the music is capable of.

Before the latter half of the 15th century, the liturgy was chanted in unison; and it is from this period we can trace the gradual departure from the rigid church style of music, in the compositions of Josquin de Près especially. In the early part of the 16th century, we find that Adrian Willært, who was made singing-master at St. Mark's, Venice, was the first who harmonized the psalm melodies for two or more choirs; then followed the motet, or harmonized antiphon, which before had been chanted in unison, as it is done at this day in the Romish chapels in England, where there

are not accomplished singing men to perform the motet. During this century, the use of harmony had not only driven the people away from their part in the performance of the service, but also corrupted the music itself so much, that it was only saved from being wholly forbidden by the grave and devotional motets and other compositions of the renowned Palestrina, whose works were imitated with great success by the disciples of his school, and this in a very eminent degree by the English church musicians. The harmonies used by Tallis, Morley, Gibbons, and the rest of the masters of church music of this age, are truly sublime Church ornament consists principally of the painted and stained glass windows of the emblem of the Trinity, of the passion of our Lord, of the evangelists, sacred monograms, statues of the holy apostles, of the holy evangelists, and of the saints commemorated by the church Church in rotundo, that whose plan is a perfect circle, in imitation of the Pantheon

Chymol, a hinge, anciently called a grimmer

Ciborium, an arch supported by four

pillars placed over the high altar Cilery, in architecture, the drapery or leavage that is wrought upon the heads of pillars

Cimellare, the vestry or room where plate, vestments, and other rich things belonging to the church are kept

Cincture, a ring, list, or fillet at the top and bottom of a column, serving to divide the shaft from the capital and its base Cinder-frame, in locomotive engines, a wire-work frame placed in front of the tubes, to arrest the ascent of large pieces of ignited coke Cinque-foil, an ornamental foliation or

feathering, used in the arches of the lights and tracery of windows, panellings, &c.

Cinque Ports, the sea-port towns of

Dover, Sandwich, Hastings, Hythe, and Romney, to which three others were afterwards added, viz. Winchelsea, Rye, and Seaford. These towns possess peculiar privileges, and are under the government of a Lord Warden

Cipher, a secret mode of writing Cippus (Latin), a low column, sometimes round, but more frequently rectangular, used as a sepulchral monument

Circinus, a pair of compasses. Those used by statuaries, architects, masons, carpenters, &c., were often represented on their tombs Circinus, according to Vitruvius, a pair of compasses employed by architects, carpenters, &c., for describing circles, measuring distances, and taking the thickness of solids Circle, a plain figure contained by one line, which is called the circumference, and is such that all straight lines drawn from a certain point within the figure to the circumference are equal to one another, and this point is called the centre of the circle

The circumference of a circle is known to be about 3.14159 times its diameter, or, in other words, the ratio of the circumference to the diameter is represented by 3.14159 for this number writers generally put the Greek letter π Circular saw. Circular saws, revolving upon an axis, have the advantage that they act continually in the same direction, and no force is lost by a backward stroke: they are also susceptible of much greater velocity than the reciprocating saws, an advantage which enables them to cut more smoothly: used principally for cutting mahogany for veneering, and for other woods cut into thin layers

Circus, an area used by the Romans

for chariot-races and horse-races, and for other public sports Cissoid of Diocles, in the higher geometry, a curve line of the second order

Cistern. There were cisterns throughout Palestine, in cities and in private houses. As the cities were mostly built on mountains, and the rains fall in Judea at two seasons only (spring and autumn), people were obliged to keep water in vessels. There are cisterns of very large dimensions at this day in Palestine. Near Bethlehem are the cisterns or pools of Solomon: they are three in number, situated in the sloping hollow of a mountain, one above another, so that the waters of the uppermost descend into the second, and those of the second descend into the third. The breadthis nearly the same in all, between 80 and 90 paces, but the length varies: the first is about 160 paces long; the second, 200; the third, 220. These pools formerly supplied the town of Bethlehem and the city of Jerusalem with water. Wells and cisterns, fountains and springs, are seldom correctly described in Scripture Cistern, in the steam engine, the vessel which surrounds the condenser, and contains the injection water Cisterna, an artificial tank or reservoir, sunk in the ground and covered in with a roof, for the purpose of collecting and preserving good water for the use of a household. Near the baths of Titus are nine subterraneous cisterns, 17 feet wide, 12 feet high, and above 137 feet long Citrine, or the colour of the citron, is the first of the tertiary class of colours, or ultimate compounds of the primary triad, yellow, red, and blue, in which yellow is the archeus or predominating colour, and blue the extreme subordinate; for citrine being an immediate compound of the secondaries, orange and green, of both which yellow is a constituent, the latter colour is of double occurrence therein, while the other two primaries enter singly into the composition of citrine; its mean or middle hue comprehending eight blue, five red, and six yellow, of equal intensities

Citrine lake is a durable and better drying species of brown pink, prepared from the quercitron bark Clack, the valve of a pump piston;

the can-lead, in Derbyshire Clacks, in locomotive engines, the complete valves of the pumps where the ball-valve is enclosed in a frame or cage, to limit its rise, and guide its fall into the steam-tight seat of the orifice of the pipe

Clack-box, in locomotive engines, the box fitted on to the boiler where a ball-clack is placed, to close the orifice of the feed-pipe, and prevent steam or hot water reaching the pumps. The ball of the clack is raised from its seat by the stroke of the pump-plunger forcing the water against it, and which water then passes into the boiler, while the instant fall of the ball prevents egress from the boiler Clack-door, a square iron plate screwed on to the side of a bottom-pump, or small bore for convenience of changing the clack or valve Clack-seats, in locomotive engines, two recesses in each pump, for the clacks to fit into

Clack-valve, in the steam engine, a flat valve in the cold-water pump, with a hinge joint

Clamp, a kiln built above the ground,

for the purpose of burning bricks in Clamp, a piece of wood fixed to the end of a board by mortise and tenon, or by groove and tongue, so that the fibres of the one piece, thus fixed, traverse those of the board, and by this means prevent it from casting: the piece at the end is called a clamp, and the board is said to be clamped Clamps, in naval architecture, thick planks in a ship's side, which support the ends of the beams Clamping, in joinery: when a piece

of board is fitted with the grain to the end of another piece of board across the grain, the first board is said to be clamped

Clamp-nails, used to fasten on clamps in the building of ships

Classic orders, in architecture of these there are but three,- the Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian: two others, the Tuscan and Composite, are often improperly classed with them, and the whole denominated 'the five orders of architecture.' For the proportions of the respective orders, see the Synopsis, p. 26 Cleading, in locomotive engines, is usually made of narrow strips of timber, neatly fitted round the boiler and fire-box, to prevent the radiation of the heat. Externally, this is sometimes covered with zinc, and a coating of dry hair felt is commonly placed between the boiler and the timber, for the same purpose Clearing the deads, a term for clearing a shaft or drift, &c.

Cleat, a piece of wood used in different

parts of a vessel to belay ropes to Cleavage, in geology, is an indicator of peculiar fossility in certain rocks, which is independent of, and meets at a considerable angle, the surfaces of lamination or deposition. Clay slate furnishes the best examples of this phenomenon

Cleithral, a covered Greek temple Cleithros, an enclosed place; a temple whose roof covers or encloses it Clerestory, an upper story or row of windows in a Gothic church, rising clear above the adjoining parts of the building

Clew, the lower corner of square-sails, and the after corner of a fore-andaft sail

Clew-garnet, a rope for hauling up the clew of a fore-sail or main-sail in a square-rigged vessel

Clew-line, a rope for hauling up the clew of a square-sail: the clew

garnite is the clew-line of a course Clicket, a latch-key; the latch of a door Clinch, in navigation, the great ring

connected with the mooring-chains Clinch, a half-hitch stopped to its own part

Clinker-bar, in steam engines, the bar fixed across the top of the ash-pit for supporting the rods used for clearing the fire-bars

Clinkers, bricks which, by the violence of the fire, are run together and glazed over Clinkers, hard bricks imported from Holland

Cloaca, a common sewer.

The term cloaca is generally used in reference to those spacious subterraneous vaults, either of stone or brick, through which the foul waters of the city, as well as all the streams brought to Rome by the aqueducts, finally discharged themselves into the Tiber

Cloaca, according to Livy, a large

subterraneous canal, constructed of masonry or brick-work, for the purpose of carrying off the rain-water from the streets of a town, and the impurities from private houses, which were thus discharged into some neighbouring river Cloacarium, the sewers' rate; a tax which was levied in Rome for the expenses of cleansing and repairing the sewers

Cloister, a covered ambulatory, forming part of a monastic or collegiate establishment. Cloisters are always attached to a college cathedral, and arranged round three or four sides of a quadrangular area, with large windows, not often glazed, looking into the quadrangle Close-hauled, a term applied to a vessel

sailing with her yards braced up so as to get as much as possible to windward

Closer, a brick-back inserted where the distance will not permit of a brick in length

Closet, a small chamber or private

room

Clove-hitch, two half-hitches round a

spar or other rope

Clove-hook, an iron clasp, in two parts, moving upon the same pivot and overlapping one another, used for bending chain-sheets to the clews of sails

Clubbing, drifting down a current with

an anchor out

Club-haul, to bring a vessel's head round on the other tack, by letting

go the lee anchor, and cutting or slipping the cable Clue-garnets, in navigation, tackles fixed to the clews or lower corners of the fore and main sail, to clew them up to the yards. (See Clewgarnet.) Clustered column, a pier which consists of several columns or shafts clustered together

Clutch, an apparatus for engaging or disengaging two shafts: it consists of two pieces of metal formed so that when placed together, projecting pieces on one (which is made to slide to and fro on the shaft, but turn with it) fit into recesses in the other, which is fixed on the driving shaft, so that the first being pulled back, its shaft will remain at rest Coaking, in ship-building, uniting pieces of spar by means of tabular projections, formed by cutting away the solid of one piece into a hollow, so as to make a projection in the other in such a manner that they may correctly fit, the buts preventing the pieces from drawing asunder

Coal belongs to the third series of the Wernerian principle, viz., carboniferous rocks, coal measures, carboniferous limestone, and old red sandstone; it is admitted to be of vegetable origin, and comprises1. Lignites, a species of mineral charcoal or intermediate gradation from wood to coal; 2. Ordinary bituminous coal, of numerous varieties; 3. Anthracite, found generally in connection with the lowest portion of the third series, and sometimes in the primary rocks themselves. Coal, then, appears to have been formed of large vegetable masses, of considerable extent, in strata varying from a few inches to many feet in depth, the strata alternating with rocks wonderfully uniform, and which consist, in most cases, of the following: sandstone, slate clay or shale, fire-clay, ironstone, limestone, &c. Rocks are found participating of both clay