taken by Antony's emissaries on the coast, when attempting to leave the country, and slain in his 64th year, and 43 B.C. Cicero's works were published in 10 vols. 4to, at Oxford, in 1782; and yet, according to some, the tenth part of what he wrote is not extant.

CICERONES, (tshetshero'nes), an Italian name given to the guides who show travellers the antiquities or curiosities of a country.

CITH'ERN, an ancient kind of harp.

CLARKE, EDWARD DANIEL, LL.D., a celebrated modern traveller, was born at Willingdon, in Sussexshire, on the 5th June, 1769. He finished his education at Jesus College, Cambridge, at which he took the degree of A.M. In 1791, he made a tour through Great Britain with Mr. H. Sufton, nephew to the Duke of Dorset, to whom he had been appointed tutor by the Duke the year before. In 1792, he accompanied Lord Berwick to Italy. In 1799, he set out with Mr. Cripps on a tour to the countries in the north of Europe. This journey which was intended at first to occupy only six months, was extended to upwards of 3 years; during which he and his pupil traversed Denmark, Norway, Sweden, Lapland, Finland, Russia, Tartary, Circassia, Asia Minor, Syria, Palestine, Egypt, Greece, and Turkey; returning to England through Germany, France, &c. On their return, the University of Cambridge conferred upon Clarke the honorary degree of LL.D., and on Cripps that of A.M. Dr. Clarke commenced at Cambridge, in 1807, a course of lectures on mineralogy, which had become his favourite study, and, at the end of next year, the University established a regular professorship of that branch of knowledge, and appointed him to the chair. Having been ordained a minister of the Church of England, he obtained the living of Yeldham from Sir W. Rush, whose daughter

he had married in 1806. Dr. Clarke died in London, on the 9th March, 1822; and a complete edition of his works appeared in 11 volumes in 1824, six of which contain, his Travels.

CLO'DIUS, a Roman, descended from an illustrious family, but remarkable for licentiousness and all kinds of wickedness. He was accused of his crimes, but bribed his judges, and got off. He filled the office of tribune, and used all his power and influence to ruin Cato and Cicero, but his wicked designs against them were frustrated, and at last he was killed by Milo, whom Cicero undertook to defend; but being overawed by the presence of soldiers, the orator broke down in his speech, and Milo was banished.

COILANTOGLE, the name given to a ford in the river Teith, in the south-west of Perthshire.

COLEOPTERA, (from koleos, Gr., a sheath, and pteron, Gr., a wing). An extensive order of insects, having their wings covered with a horny sheath, such as the beetle.

COLUMBUS, CHRISTOPHER, (Lat. of the Italian name Colombo). This wonderful man was born about the year 1446, at Gen'oa, a seaport town in the northwest of Italy. His father, though but a poor woolcomber, made every effort to give his son a good education, and for this purpose sent him to Pavia, then the great school of learning in the north of Italy. Young Colombo evinced a strong taste for geography, and the kindred branches of knowledge; but, at the same time, seemed more inclined to learn them by experience than at school. He accordingly went to sea, at the age of fourteen, and for some years sailed on the Mediterrannean, during which he was frequently engaged in hostile encounters with the enemies of the Genoese. About this period, Portugal was attracting

much attention by her maritime expeditions, which led Columbus, about the year 1470, to remove to Lisbon, where he found relatives and countrymen. Here he married the daughter of a distinguished Italian navigator, whose papers, charts, and nautical instruments were highly useful to Columbus, not only in the various maritime expeditions in which he was engaged, but also in enabling him to construct other maps and charts, which he sold to assist in supporting his family, and his aged father at Genoa, and also to educate a younger brother. Various circumstances contributed about this time to create a strong excitement, and raise high expectations as to maritime discoveries. These were confirmed by the discovery of Porto-Santo, an island not very far off the south-west coast of Spain. Here Columbus resided for some time, and was thus brought into direct contact with a subject in which he felt the most intense interest. A belief in the existence of large districts of country lying east of India, but connected with it, was now pretty generally entertained. But, in addition to this general idea, Columbus had reached a strong conviction that the nearest course to this supposed country would be by sailing west. While the Portugese, therefore, were attempting an eastern passage, by the Cape of Good Hope, his enthusiastic mind glowed with the keenest ardour to carry out his own scheme; and this feeling was brought to a hight by a religious or superstitious conviction that he was thus destined to convey the gospel to the utmost ends of the earth. With these impressions, Columbus adopted the most energetic measures for carrying out his designs, in which he persevered with a zeal so indomitable, as at last overcame the most discouraging, and all but insurmountable, difficulties with which he had to contend. He applied for assistance to Gen'oa, to Portugal, to

Genoa again, to Venice, to France, to England, and to Spain. At last, after a struggle of eight years with the court of Spain, against obstacles thrown in his way, he succeeded in getting the King and Queen, Ferdinand and Isabella, to grant him three small vessels, two of them little better than big boats, being only partly decked. With these three slender vessels, and 120 hands a number of whom were unwillingly pressed into the service this intrepid man set sail on the 3rd August, 1492, to cross the mighty Atlantic, or rather, to go he knew not where. After sailing for some weeks, and being frequently disappointed in their expectations of seeing land, the crew became discouraged and discontented. Columbus cheered, flattered, and threatened; still, in spite of all his efforts, things grew worse, so that at last his state became so desperate, that, on the 10th October, it was even proposed by some to throw their admiral overboard, and return home. It fortunately happened, next day, that the indications of land were such as to satisfy the most desponding. Columbus ordered a careful lookout, and at two o'clock on the morning of the 12th, the first ship fired a gun as the signal of land. They soon landed on San Salvador, one of the Baháma islands. After fervent thanksgivings to God, with tears of joy Columbus kissed the earth on which he landed, and took possession of it in the name of Spain. After making some other discoveries, the island of Cuba broke upon his view, which he believed until the day of his death to be the main land of India; which caused these islands, when the mistake was discovered, to be named the West Indies. Columbus left a small colony of his men on the island of Hay'ti, and set sail for Spain on the 4th January, 1493. After encountering severe storms, he re-entered the Port of Pálos, on the 15th March, and was received both by

prince and people with the most unbounded enthusiasm. On the 25th September of the same year, Columbus left Cadiz, on a second expedition, with 17 ships and 1500 men. He discovered the Car'ibbee Islands, Jamaica, &c.; and, after experiencing great difficulties from the mutinies of his colonists, and other hardships, he returned again to Cadiz, on the 11th June, 1496, to vindicate himself from charges which envy and malice had raised against him, Having dispelled these calumnies, he embarked on a third voyage, 30th May, 1498, with 6 vessels. After discovering the main land of South America, Columbus sailed for the settlement of Hayti, or as he named it, Hispaniola, to recruit his health. Various circumstances now conspired to give effect to the calumnies of the enemies of Columbus, so that at last Ferdinand was instigated, in July, 1500, to send out a governor to supersede him; and with authority to send him home a prisoner. He was sent off in chains, along with his two brothers. The persons in charge of him would have taken off his chains, but the brave Columbus indignantly said, "I will wear them till the king orders otherwise, and will preserve them as memorials of his gratitude." He afterwards hung them up in his cabinet, and requested that they should be buried in his grave. The general feeling of indignation which burst forth throughout Spain on the arrival of Columbus at Cadiz in fetters, compelled the king to disclaim all knowledge of the shameful transaction. He ordered the prisoner's immediate release, and received him at court with wonted distinction. Still he kept the injured Columbus in suspense for nine months, and at last, instead of giving him redress, appointed another as governor of Hispaniola in his place, at the same time promising great things to Columbus, in the shape of a new expedition. Columbus still be