of a constitutional right,37 or imposing the duty of performing an act upon any person which it is impossible for him to perform, and making his nonperformance of that duty a crime.38 But they do not prevent classifications of persons, subjects or localities for the purpose of legislation, provided the classification has some reasonable relation to real differences with reference to the subject regulated, and the law operates equally upon all who come within the class to be affected.39 § 44. Right to make contracts. The right to make contracts is both a liberty and a property right, within the meaning of the constitution, and cannot be unnecessarily or arbitrarily interfered with or abridged by penal laws; 40 and this right extends to and includes Ed. 384, 14 Sup. Ct. 499. And see People v. Grout, 179 N. Y. 417, 72 N. E. 464, 1 Ann. Cas. 39. "The legislature has no authority to pronounce the performance of an innocent act criminal when the public health, safety, comfort or welfare is not interfered with." Gillespie v. People, 188 Ill. 176, 58 N. E. 1007, 52 L. R. A. 283, 80 Am. St. Rep. 176. But a statute does not violate the amendment because it makes an act a crime though done without a criminal intent. Shevlin-Carpenter Co. V. State of Minnesota, 218 U. S. 57, 54 L. Ed. 930, 30 Sup. Ct. 663, aff'g 102 Minn. 470, 113 N. W. 634, 114 N. W. 738. And see § 85, infra. 37 Gillespie v. People, 188 Ill. 176, 58 N. E. 1007, 52 L. R. A. 283, 80 Am. St. Rep. 176; State v. Julow, 129 Mo. 163, 31 S. W. 781, 29 L. R. A. 257, 50 Am. St. Rep. 443. 38 City of Port Huron v. Jenkinson, 77 Mich. 414, 43 N. W. 923, 6 L. R. A. 54, 18 Am. St. Rep. 409, holding an ordinance requiring the owner or occupant of real estate to keep and maintain a good and sufficient sidewalk in front of his premises to be unconstitutional. 39 See § 48, infra. 40 United States. Allgeyer v. State of Louisiana, 165 U. S. 578, 41 L. Ed. 832, 17 Sup. Ct. 427, rev'g 48 La. Ann. 104, 18 So. 904. Arkansas. Leep v. St. Louis, I. M. & S. Ry. Co., 58 Ark. 407, 25 S. W. 75, 23 L. R. A. 264, 41 Am. St. Rep. 109. California. In re Farb, 178 Cal. 592, 174 Pac. 320, 3 A. L. R. 301; Ex parte Drexel, 147 Cal. 763, 82 Pac. 429, 2 L. R. A. (N. S.) 588, 3 Ann. Cas. 878. Delaware. State v. Wickenhoefer, 6 Pennew. 120, 64 Atl. 273. Illinois. Braceville Coal Co. V. People, 147 Ill. 66, 35 N. E. 62, 22 L. R. A. 340, 37 Am. St. Rep. 206; Frorer v. People, 141 Ill. 171, 31 N. E. 395, 16 L. R. A. 492; Millett v. People, 117 Ill. 294, 7 N. E. 631, 57 Am. Rep. 869. Indiana. Republic Iron & Steel Co. v. State, 160 Ind. 379, 66 N. E. 1005, 62 L. R. A. 136; Parks v. State, 159 Ind. 211, 64 N. E. 862, 59 L. R. A. 190. Massachusetts. In re opinion of Justices, 208 Mass. 619, 94 N. E. 1044, 34 L. R. A. (N. S.) 771. New York. People v. Davis, 160 N. Y. Supp. 769. Ohio. In re Steube, 91 Ohio St. 135, 110 N. E. 250, L. R. A. 1916 E the right to purchase and sell labor and to contract with respect to it. The right to contract is not such an absolute right as to render it immune from the reasonable exercise of the police power, however, and it is therefore subject to reasonable regulation to safeguard the public interests.42 And if a contract is one which a state has a right to prohibit in the legitimate exercise of the police power, 377; City of Cleveland v. Clements Bros. Const. Co., 67 Ohio St. 197, 65 N. E. 885, 59 L. R. A. 775, 93 Am. St. Rep. 670. Oklahoma. Dickinson v. Perry, 75 Okla. 25, 181 Pac. 504. Oregon. State v. Muller, 48 Ore. 252, 85 Pac. 855, 120 Am. St. Rep. 805, 11 Ann. Cas. 88, aff'd 208 U. S. 412, 52 L. Ed. 550, 28 Sup. Ct. 324. Texas. St. Louis Southwestern R. Co. of Texas v. Griffin, 106 Tex. 477, 171 S. W. 703, L. R. A. 1917 B 1108. West Virginia. State v. Goodwill, 33 W. Va. 179, 10 S. E. 285, 6 L. R. A. 621, 25 Am. St. Rep. 863. 41 Lochner v. New York, 198 U. S. 45, 49 L. Ed. 937, 25 Sup. Ct. 539, 3 Ann. Cas. 1133, rev'g 177 N. Y. 145, 69 N. E. 373, 101 Am. St. Rep. 773; Mathews v. People, 202 Ill. 389, 67 N. E. 28, 63 L. R. A. 73, 95 Am. St. Rep. 241; State v. Muller, 48 Ore. 252, 85 Pac. 855, 120 Am. St. Rep. 805, 11 Ann. Cas. 88, aff'd 208 U. S. 412, 52 L. Ed. 550, 28 Sup. Ct. 324; Owens v. State, 53 Tex. Cr. 105, 112 S. W. 1075, 126 Am. St. Rep. 772; State v. Goodwill, 33 W. Va. 179, 10 S. E. 285, 6 L. R. A. 621, 25 Am. St. Rep. 863. 42 United States. Miller v. Wilson, 236 U. S. 373, 59 L. Ed. 628, 35 Sup. Ct. 342, L. R. A. 1915 F 829, aff'g 162 Cal. 687, 124 Pac. 427; Erie R. Co. v. Williams, 233 U. S. 685, 58 L. Ed. 1155, 34 Sup. Ct. 761, 51 L. R. A. (N. S.) 1097, aff'g 199 N. Y. 108, 525, 92 N. E. 1084; Hawley v. Walker, 232 U. S. 718, 58 L. Ed. 813, 34 Sup. Ct. 479 (mem. dec.), Schmidinger v. City of Chicago, 226 U. S. 578, 57 L. Ed. 364, 33 Sup. Ct. 182, Ann. Cas. 1914 B 284, aff'g 245 Ill. 317, 92 N. E. 244, 243 Ill. 167, 90 N. E. 369, 44 L. R. A. (N. S.) 632, 17 Ann. Cas. 614; House v. Mayes, 219 U. S. 270, 55 L. Ed. 213, 31 Sup. Ct. 234, aff'g 227 Mo. 617, 127 S. W. 305; McLean v. Arkansas, 211 U. S. 539, 53 L. Ed. 315, 29 Sup. Ct. 206, aff'g 81 Ark. 304, 98 S. W. 729, 126 Am. St. Rep. 1037, 11 Ann. Cas. 72. Alabama. Boone v. State, 170 Ala. 57, 54 So. 109, Ann. Cas. 1912 C 1065. Arkansas. Leep v. St. Louis, I. M. & S. Ry. Co., 58 Ark. 407, 25 S. W. 75, 23 L. R. A. 264, 41 Am. St. Rep. 109. California. In re Farb, 178 Cal. 592, 174 Pac. 320, 3 A. L. R. 301; In re Martin, 157 Cal. 51, 106 Pac. 235, 26 L. R. A. (N. S.) 242. Delaware. State v. Wickenhoefer, 6 Pennew. 120, 64 Atl. 273. Georgia. King v. State, 136 Ga. 709, 71 S. E. 1093; Atlantic Coast Line R. Co. v. State, 125 Ga. 545. Massachusetts. In re Opinion of Justices, 208 Mass. 619, 94 N. E. 1044, 34 L. R. A. (N. S.) 771. Mississippi. State v. J. J. Newman Lumber Co., 103 Miss. 263, 60 So. 215, 45 L. R. A. (N. S.) 858; s. c., 102 Miss. 802, 59 So. 923, 45 L. R. A. (N. S.) 851. the fourteenth amendment will not prevent it from doing so.43 So contracts in violation of state or federal statutes, or to do any unlawful acts are not within its protection.44 Nor is it an impairment of the freedom of contract to require that certain terms of a contract shall be posted in such form as not to be subject to mistake or dispute.45 Illustrations of laws which have been held to be valid and invalid under the foregoing rules will be found in the chapters of this work dealing with the various particular offenses.46 § 45. Right to follow lawful business or occupation. The right to liberty and property guaranteed by the fourteenth amendment, and by similar provisions in state constitutions, embraces the right of the citizen to use his faculties in all lawful ways, to live and work where he will, to earn his livelihood in any lawful calling, and to adopt and pursue any lawful trade, avocation or calling he may choose.47 And it follows that the legislature may not, under the guise L. R. A. 1916 E 380, Ann. Cas. 1916 B 1149, aff'd 240 U. S. 510, 60 L. Ed. 771, 36 Sup. Ct. 440. Oklahoma. Dickinson v. Perry, 75 Okla. 25, 181 Pac. 504. Oregon. State v. Muller, 48 Ore. 252, 85 Pac. 855, 120 Am. St. Rep. 805, 11 Ann. Cas. 88, aff'd 208 U. S. 412, 52 L. Ed. 550, 28 Sup. Ct. 324. Tennessee. Leeper v. State, 103 Tenn. 500, 53 S. W. 962, 48 L. R. A. 167. Wisconsin. State v. Cary, 126 Wis. 135, 105 N. W. 792, 11 L. R. A. (N. S.) 174. So long as laws enacted under the police power have a reasonable relation to the exercise of that power, and are not so arbitrary or capricious as to be a deprivation of due process of law, freedom of contract is not interfered with in a constitutional sense. Schmidinger v. City of Chicago, 226 U. S. 578, 57 L. Ed. 364, 33 Sup. Ct. 182, Ann. Cas. 1914 B 284, aff'g 245 Ill. 317, 92 N. E. 244, 243 Ill. 167, 90 N. E. 369, 44 L. R. A. (N. S.) 632, 17 Ann. Cas. 614; Stegmann v. Weeke, 279 Mo. 140, 214 S. W. 137. As to the police power generally, see § 46, infra. 43 Lochner v. New York, 198 U. S. 45, 49 L. Ed. 937, 25 Sup. Ct. 539, 3 Ann. Cas. 1133, rev'g 177 N. Y. 145, 69 N. E. 373, 101 Am. St. Rep. 773; State v. Wickenhoefer, 6 Pennew. (Del.) 120, 64 Atl. 273. 44 Lochner v. New York, 198 U. S. 45, 49 L. Ed. 937, 25 Sup. Ct. 539, 3 Ann. Cas. 1133, rev'g 177 N. Y. 145, 69 N. E. 373, 101 Am. St. Rep. 773. 45 Com. v. Riley, 210 Mass. 387, 97 N. E. 367, Ann. Cas. 1912 D 388. 39, 46 See particularly chapters 36 to 47 United States. Booth v. State of California. Ex parte Drexel, 147 Colorado. Wilson v. City & County + of protecting the public interests, arbitrarily prohibit or interfere with a lawful trade or business, or impose unreasonable or unnecessary restrictions upon lawful occupations.48 This right is not an absolute one, however. The legislature, under the police power, may of Denver, 65 Colo. 484, 178 Pac. 17; In re Morgan, 26 Colo. 415, 58 Pac. 1071, 47 L. R. A. 52, 77 Am. St. Rep. 269. Illinois. Braceville Coal Co. v. People, 147 Ill. 66, 35 N. E. 62, 22 L. R. A. 340, 37 Am. St. Rep. 206. Indiana. Parks v. State, 159 Ind. 211, 64 N. E. 862, 59 L. R. A. 190. Montana. State v. Hopkins, 54 Mont. 52, 166 Pac. 304, Ann. Cas. 1918 D 956; State v. District Court of First Judicial Dist., Department No. 2, 26 Mont. 121, 66 Pac. 754. New York. In re Jacobs, 98 N. Y. 98, 50 Am. Rep. 636; Bertholf v. O'Reilly, 74 N. Y. 509, 30 Am. Rep. 323; People v. Davis, 160 N. Y. Supp. 769. Ohio. State v. Gravett, 65 Ohio St. 289, 62 N. E. 325, 55 L. R. A. 791, 87 Am. St. Rep. 605; State v. Gardner, 58 Ohio St. 599, 51 N. E. 136, 41 L. R. A. 689, 65 Am. St. Rep. 785. Oregon. State v. Bunting, 71 Ore. 259, 139 Pac. 731, L. R. A. 1917 C 1162, Ann. Cas. 1916 C 1003; State v. Muller, 48 Ore. 252, 85 Pac. 855, 120 Am. St. Rep. 805, 11 Ann. Cas. 88, aff'd 208 U. S. 412, 52 L. Ed. 550, Sup. Ct. 324. Texas. 28 Owens v. State, 53 Tex. Cr. 105, 112 S. W. 1075, 126 Am. St. Rep. 772. 244 U. S. 590, 61 L. Ed. 1336, 37 Sup. Ct. 662, L. R. A. 1917 F 1163, Ann. Cas. 1917 D 973, rev'g 221 Fed. 694; Lawton v. Steele, 152 U. S. 133, 38 L. Ed. 385, 14 Sup. Ct. 499, aff'g 119 N. Y. 226, 23 N. E. 878, 7 L. R. A. 134, 16 Am. St. Rep. 813. Illinois. Bessette v. People, 193 Ill. 334, 62 N. E. 215, 56 L. R. A. 558; Braceville Coal Co. v. People, 147 Ill. 66, 35 N. E. 62, 22 L. R. A. 340, 37 Am. St. Rep. 206; Frorer v. People, 141 Ill. 171, 31 N. E. 395, 16 L. R. A. 492. Indiana. State v. Richcreek, 167 Ind. 217, 77 N. E. 1085, 5 L. R. A. (N. S.) 874, 119 Am. St. Rep. 491, 10 Ann. Cas. 899. Maryland. State v. Potomac Valley Coal Co. of Garrett County, 116 Md. 380, 81 Atl. 686. Minnesota. State v. Vandersluis, 42 Minn. 129, 43 N. W. 789, 6 L. R. A. 119. New Hampshire. State v. Ramseyer, 73 N. H. 31, 58 Atl. 958, 6 Ann. Cas. 445. New York. People v. Marx, 99 N. Y. 377, 2 N. E. 29, 52 Am. Rep 34; In re Jacobs, 98 N. Y. 98, 50 Am Rep. 636. North Carolina. State v. Biggs, 133 N. C. 729, 46 S. E. 401, 64 L. R A. 139, 98 Am. St. Rep. 731. Ohio. State v. Gardner, 58 Ohio St. 599, 51 N. E. 136, 41 L. R. A. 689. 65 Am. St. Rep. 785. prohibit or suppress any business which is inherently vicious and harmful 49 or even a particular kind of business or calling which is not in itself immoral when honestly and properly conducted, if the tendency of what is generally or ordinarily or often done in pursuing it is towards that which is admittedly immoral or pernicious. And if the legislature thinks that certain admitted evils cannot be reached unless a particular calling be prohibited, the courts cannot interfere unless they can say that the statute has no real or substantial relation to the protection of the public morals, but is a clear, unmistakable infringement of rights secured by the fundamental law.50 It may also regulate useful occupations, trades or callings which, because of their nature or location, may prove offensive to the public, or injurious to the public health, safety or morals, or to the general welfare, and may impose conditions upon the right to engage in them in order to protect the public against the consequences of ignorance, incapacity and fraud.51 It may, for example, regulate the West Virginia. State v. Goodwill, 33 W. Va. 179, 10 S. E. 285, 6 L. R. A. 621, 25 Am. St. Rep. 863. For illustrations of statutes which have been held to be void under this rule, see the chapters dealing specifically with the various regulatory statutes, particularly chapters 36 to 39, inclusive. 49 Adams v. Tanner, 244 U. S. 590, 61 L. Ed. 1336, 37 Sup. Ct. 662, L. R. A. 1917 F 1163, Ann. Cas. 1917 D 973, rev'g 221 Fed. 694; Murphy v. People of State of California, 225 U. S. 623, 56 L. Ed. 1229, 32 Sup. Ct. 697, 41 L. R. A. (N. S.) 153. 50 Murphy v. California, 225 U. S. 623, 56 L. Ed. 1229, 32 Sup. Ct. 697, 41 L. R. A. (N. S.) 153; Booth v. State of Illinois, 184 U. S. 425, 46 L. Ed. 623, 22 Sup. Ct. 425, aff'g 186 Ill. 43, 57 N. E. 798, 50 L. R. A. 762, 78 Am. St. Rep. 229; State v. Smith, 233 Mo. 242, 135 S. W. 465, 33 L. R. A. (N. S.) 179. 51 United States. Adams v. Tanner, 244 U. S. 590, 61 L. Ed. 1336, 37 Sup. Ct. 662, L. R. A. 1917 F 1163, Ann. Cas. 1917 D 973, rev'g 221 Fed. 694; Schmidinger v. City of Chicago, 226 U. S. 578, 57 L. Ed. 364, 33 Sup. Ct. 182, Ann. Cas. 1914 B 284, aff'g 245 Ill. 317, 92 N. E. 244, 243 Ill. 167, 90 N. E. 369, 44 L. R. A. (N. S.) 632, 17 Ann. Cas. 614; Murphy v. People of State of California, 225 U. S. 623, 56 L. Ed. 1229, 32 Sup. Ct. 697, 41 L. R. A. (N. S.) 153; Watson v. State of Maryland, 218 U. S. 173, 54 L. Ed. 987, 30 Sup. Ct. 644, aff'g 105 Md. 650, 66 Atl. 635; Dent v. West Virginia, 129 U. S. 114, 32 L. Ed. 623, 9 Sup. Ct. 231. Illinois. People v. Kane, 288 Ill. 235, 123 N. E. 265. Indiana. Parks v. State, 159 Ind. 211, 64 N. E. 862, 59 L. R. A. 190. Minnesota. State v. Vandersluis, 42 Minn. 129, 43 N.. W. 789, 6 L. R. A. 119. Missouri. State v. Smith, 233 Mo. 242, 135 S. W. 465, 33 L. R. A. (N. S.) 179. Montana. State v. Hopkins, 54 Mont. 52, 166 Pac. 304, Ann. Cas. 1918 D 956; State v. District Court of First Judicial Dist., Department No. 2, 26 Mont. 121, 66 Pac. 754. New York. People v. Griswold, 213 N. Y. 92, 106 N. E. 929, L. R. A. |