event is to happen twice at least in four bn+nbn-la+n. bn-2u2 to d terms, a+bn will express the probability of the event's not happening so often as d times in n trials. Ex. Supposing a person with six dice undertakes to throw two aces or more in the first trial, what is the probability of his succeeding? In this case a, b, n, and d, being respectively equal to 1, 5, 6, and 2, the above expression will be come times, the probability of its happening dur- 1+30+15 × 25 +20 × 125 +15 × 625 ing the first three times has been already 66 12281 46656 succeeding will be as 34375 to 12281, or nearly as three to one. Hence the odds against his We have already observed, that the doctrine of chances is particularly applicable to the business of life annuities and assurance. This depends on the chance of life in all its stages, which is found by the bills of mortality in different places. These bills exhibit how many persons upon an average out of a certain number born are left at the end of each year, to the extremity of life. From such tables the probability of the continuance of a life of any proposed age is known. 579 vidual aged 22 will live one year is or 586' 83 7 84nearly; and or 1 586 4nearly is the probability that he will die in that time. See MORTALITY, bills of, &c. Those who would enter more at large into this subject may be referred to the works already mentioned, or to the article CHANCES in the new Cyclopædia of Dr. Rees, a work that will be found in every library of general literature, and in which this subject is treated with great ability. Though we strall under the article GAMING refer again to the doctrine of chances, it may not be amiss to mention a deduc. tion or two, drawn by the writer of the article just referred to, as the necessary consequences of mathematical reasoning. The first is suppose a lottery consisting of 25,000 tickets, of which 20 are to be prizes of 10007, and upwards; a person, to have an equal chance of one of those prizes, must purchase about 870 tickets, which at 201. each is equal to 17,400Z : Again: suppose there are three prizes of 20,000l. and three of 10,0007. and a person out of 25,000 tickets has purchased 3000 of them to his own share, in hopes of gaining one of each of these capital prizes; still the chances against such an expectation will be nearly twelve to one. See GAMING. CHANCE medley, in law, is the accidental killing of a man not altogether without the killer's fault, though without any evil intention; and is where one is doing a lawful act, and a person is killed thereby, for, if the act be unlawful, it is felony. The difference betwixt chancemedley and manslaughter is this: if a person cast a stone, which happens to hit one, and he dies; or if a workman, in throwing down rubbish from a house, after warning to take care, kill a person, it is chance-medley, and misadventure: but if a person throws stones on the highway, where people usually pass: or a workman throws down rubbish from a house, in cities and towns where people are continually passing; or if a man whips his horse in the street, to make him gallop, and the horse runs over a child and kills it, it is manslaughter; but if another whips the horse, it is manslaughter in him, and chance-medley in the rider. In chance-medley the of fender forfeits his goods, but has a pardon of course. CHANCELLOR, an officer supposed originally to have been a notary or scribe under the emperors, and named cancellarius, because he sat behind a lattice, call. ed in Latin cancellus, to avoid being crowded by the people. CHANCELLOR, Lord High, of Great Britain, or Lord Keeper of the Great Seal, is the highest honour of the long robe, being made so per traditionem magni sigilli. per dominum regem, and by taking the oaths: he is the first person of the realm next after the king and princes of the blood in all civil affairs; and is the chief administrator of justice next the sovereign, being the judge of the court of chancery. All other justices are tied to the strict rules of law in their judgment; but the chancellor is invested with the king's absolute power to moderate the written law, governing his judgment purely by the law of nature and conscience, and ordering all things according to equity and justice. The Lord Chan cellor not only keeps the King's great seal; but also all patents, commissions, warrants, &c. from the King, are, before they are signed, perused by him; he has the disposition of ali ecclesiastical benefices in the gift of the crown under 207, a year in the king's books; and he is speaker of the House of Lords. To him belongs the appointment of all justices of the peace throughout the kingdom. He is the general guardian of all infants, idiots and lunatics; and has the general superintendence of all charitable uses in the kingdom. CHANCELLOR of a cathedral, an officer that hears lessons and lectures read in the church, either by himself or his vicar; to correct and set right the reader when he reads amiss; to inspect schools; to hear causes; apply the seal; write and dispatch the letters of the chapter; keep the books; take care that there be frequent preachings both in the church and out of it; and assign the office of preaching to whom he pleases. CHANCELLOR of the duchy of Lancaster, an officer appointed chiefly to determine controversies between the king and his tenants of the duchy land, and otherwise to direct all the King's affairs belonging to that court. CHANCELLOR of the Exchequer, an officer who presides in that court, and takes care of the interest of the crown. He is always in commission with the Lord Treasurer, for the letting of crownlands, &c. and has power, with others, to compound for forfeitures of lands upon penal statutes: he has also great authority in managing the royal revenues, and in matters relating to the first fruits. CHANCELLOR of the order of the garter, and other military orders, is an officer who seals the commissions and mandates of the chapter and assembly of the knights, keeps the register of their proceedings, and delivers acts thereof under the seal of their order. absence. The Chancellor of Cambridge is also usually one of the prime nobility, and in most respects the same as that in Oxford, only he does not hold his office durante vita, but may be elected every three years. Under the chancellor there is a Comissary, who holds a court of record for all privileged persons and scholars under the degree of Master of Arts, where all causes are tried and determined by the civil and statute law, and by the custom of the university. The ViceChancellor of Cambridge is chosen annually by the Senate, out of two persons no minated by the heads of the several colleges and halls. CHANCERY, the grand court of equity and conscience, instituted to moderate the rigour of the other courts that are bound to the strict letter of the law. In Chancery are two courts; one ordinary, being a court of common law; the other extraordinary, being a court of equi ty. The ordinary or common law court is a court of record. Its jurisdiction is to hold plea upon a scire facias, to repeal and cancel the King's letters patent, when made against law, or upon untrue suggestions; and to hold plea on all personal actions, where any officer of this court is a party; and of executions on statutes, or of recognizances in nature of statutes; and by several acts of Parlia ment, of divers other offences and causes; but this court cannot try a cause by a jury, but the record is to be delivered by the Lord Chancellor into the King's Bench, to be tried there, and judgment given thereon. And when judgment is given in this common law part of Chancery upon demurrer, or the like, a writ of error is returnable into the King's Bench; but this hath not been practised for many years. From this court also proceed all original writs, commissions of charitable uses, bankrupts, sewers, idiots, lunatics, and the like: and for these ends this court is always open. CHANCELLOR of an university, is he who seals the diplomas, or letters of degrees, provision, &c. given in the university. The Chancellor of Oxford is usually one of the prime nobility, chosen by the students themselves in convocation. He is their chief magistrate; his office is durante vita, to govern the university, preserve and defend its rights and privileges, convoke assemblies, and do justice among the members under his jurisdiction Under the Chancellor is the Vice-Chancellor, The extraordinary court is a court of who is chosen annually, being nominated equity, and proceeds by the rules of equi by the Chancellor, and elected by the unity and good conscience. This equity conversity in convocation: he is always the head of some college, and in holy orders. His proper office is, to execute the Chancellor's power, to govern the university according to her statutes, to see that officers and students do their duty, that courts be duly called, &c. When he enters upon his office, he chooses four Pro-Vice-Chancellors out of the heads of the colleges, to execute his power in his sists in abating the rigour of the common law, and giving a remedy in cases where no provision, or not sufficient provision, had been made by the ordinary course of law. The jurisdiction of this court is of vast extent. Almost all causes of weight and moment, first or last, have their deter mination here In this court relief is given in the case of infants, married women, and others not capable of acting for them selves. All frauds, for which there is no remedy at law, are cognizable here; as also all breaches of trust, and unreasona ble or unconscionable engagements. It will compel men to perform their agreements; will remove mortgageors and obligors against penalties and forfeiture, on payment of principal, interest, and costs; will rectify mistakes in conveyances; will grant injunctions to stay waste; and restrain the proceedings of inferior courts, that they exceed not their authority and jurisdiction. This court will not retain a suit for any thing under 107. value; except in cases of charity, nor for lands under 40s. per annum. CHANCRE, a venereal ulcer. Se SUR GERY, CHANGES, in arithmetic, the varia tions or permutations of any number of things, with regard to their position, order, &c. The method of finding out the number of changes, is by a continual multiplication of all the terms in a series of arithmetical progressionals, whose first term, and common difference, is unity, or 1; and last term the number of things proposed to be varied, viz. 1 X2 X3 X4 X5 X 6 × 7, &c. as will appear from what follows: 1. If the things proposed to be varied are only two, they admit of a double position, as to order of place, and no no more. For, beginning with 1, there 2 1.2.3 will be.......... $1.3.2 Next, beginning with 2, there 22.1.3 will be..... $2.3.1 Again, beginning with 3, it 23.1.2 will be....... $3.2.1 Which, in all, make 6, or 3 times 2; viz. 1 x 2 x 3 6. 3. Suppose 4 things were supposed to be varied, then they admit of 24 several changes, as to their order of different places. 1.2.3.4 For, beginnning the order | 1.2.4.3 with 1, it will be........... 1.3.2.4 (1.3 4.2 Here are six different 1.4.2.3 changes....... 1.4.3.2 And for the same reason there will be 6 different changes when 2 begins the order, and as many when 3 and 4 begin the order; which, in all, is 24 = 1 X 2 VOL. III. They may thus be continued on to any assigned number. Suppose to 24, the number of letters in the alphabet, which will admit of 620448401733239439360000 several variations. Since on 12 bells there would be, by the table, 479001600 changes: suppose 10 changes to be rung in a minute, that is, 10 × 12, or 120 strokes in a minute, it would even then require upwards of 90 years to ring over all the changes on the 12 bells. CHANGES of quantities, in algebra, the same with what is otherwise called combination. See COMBINATION. CHANNEL, in hydrography, the deepest part of a river, harbour, strait, &c. which is most convenient for the track of shipping, also an arm of the sea running between an island and the main or continent, as the British Channel. CHAOS, in natural history, a genus of insects, belonging to the order Zoophyta. The body has no covering; no joints; no external organs of sensation. There are five species, most obtained by fusion of different vegetables in water, and seen only by the aid of the microscope. CHAPLAIN, an ecclesiastic, who officiates in a chapel. The King of Great Britain hath forty-eight chaplains in ordinary, usually eminent doctors in divinity, T who wait four each month, preach in the chapel, read the service to the family, and to the King in his private oratory, and say grace in the absence of the clerk of the closet. Besides, there are twenty four chaplains at Whitehall, fellows of Oxford or Cambridge, who preach in their turns, and are allowed thirty pounds per annum each. According to a statute of Henry VIII. the persons vested with a power of retaining chaplains, together with the number each is allowed to qualify, is as follows: an archbishop, eight; a duke or bishop, six; marquis or earl, five; viscount, four; baron, knight of the garter, or lord chancellor, three; a duchess, marchioness, countess, baroness, the treasurer and comptroller of the king's house, clerk of the closet, the king's secretary, dean of the chapel, almoner and master of the rolls, each of them two; chief justice of the King's Bench, and warden of the Cinque Ports, each one. All these chaplains may purchase a license or dispensa tion, and take two benefices with cure of souls. A chaplain must be retained by letters testimonial under hand and seal; for it is not sufficient that he serve as chaplain in the family. CHAPLET, in architecture, a small ornament, carved into round beads, pearls, olives, and pater-nosters, as is frequently done in baguettes. CHAPPE, in heraldry, the dividing an escutcheon by lines drawn from the centre of the upper edge to the angles below into three parts, the sections on the sides being of a different metal or colour from the rest. CHAPTER, in ecclesiastical policy, a society or community of ecclesiastics belonging to a cathedral or collegiate church. It was in the eighth century that the body of canons began to be called a chapter. The chapter of the canons of a cathedral were a standing council to the bishop, and, during the vacancy of the see, had the jurisdiction of the diocese. In the earlier ages, the bishop was head of the chapter; afterwards abbots and other dignitaries, as deans, provosts, treasurers, &c. were preferred to this distinction. The deans and chapters had the privilege of choosing the bishops in England, but Henry VIII. got this power vested in the crown; and as the same prince expelled the monks from the cathedrals, and placed secular canons in their room, those he thus regulated were called deans and chapters of the new foundation; such are, Canterbury, Winchester, Ely, Carlisle, &c. CHARA, in botany, a genus of the Monoecia Monandria class and order. Natural order of Inundatæ. Naiades, Jussieu. Essential character: male calyx and corolla none; anther before the germ, underneath. Female, calyx fourleaved; corolla none; stigmas five-cleft; seed one. There are four species, of which C. tomentosa, brittle chara, or stone wort, is always flesh-coloured when alive, and when dry it becomes ash-coloured; stem twisted, brittle, and gritty in the mouth, like coralline; low and creeping in marshes where there is little water. In summer, this plant abounds in oblong berries, growing yellow when ripe, having small black seeds in them. It is an annual, flowering from June to October. CHARACTER, in a general sense, denotes any mark whatever, serving to represent either things or ideas; thus, letters are characters, types, or marks of certain sounds; words, of ideas, &c. Characters are of infinite advantage in almost all sciences, for conveying in the most concise and expressive manner an author's meaning; however, such a mul tiplicity of them, as we find used by different nations, must be allowed to be a very considerable obstacle to the improvement of knowledge; several aulthors have therefore attempted to establish characters that should be universal, and which each nation might read in their own language; and, consequently, which should be real, not nominal or arbitrary, but expressive of things themselves; thus, the universal character for a horse would be read by an Englishman horse, by a Frenchman cheval, by the La&c. tins equus, by the Greeks, πños, The first who made any attempts for an universal character in Europe were, Bishop Wilkins and Dalgarme: Mr. Leibnitz also turned his thoughts that way; and Mr. Lodwic, in the Philosophical Transactions, gives a plan of an universal character, which was to contain an enu. meration of all such single sounds as are used in any language. The advantages he proposed to derive from this character were, that people would be enabled to pronounce truly and readily any lan guage that should be pronounced in their hearing; and lastly, that this character would serve as a standard to perpetuate the sounds of every language what soever. CHARACTER is also used, in several of the arts, for a symbol, contrived for the more concise and immediate con |