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of the inrolment of nes and recoveries, and clerk of the errors.

COMMON prayer is the liturgy in the Church of England. Clergymen are to use the public form of prayers prescribed by the Book of Common Prayer; and refusing to do so, or using any other public prayers, are punishable by 1 Eliz. c. ii.

COMMON, in grammar, denotes the gender of nouns, which are equally applicable to both sexes; thus parens, a parent, is of the common gender.

COMMON, in geometry, is applied to an angle, line, or the like, which belongs equally to two figures.

COMMON divisor, a quantity or number which exactly divides two or more other quantities or numbers, without leaving any remainder.

COMMON measure, is such a number as exactly measures two or more numbers without a remainder.

COMMON, greatest, measure, of two or more numbers, is the greatest number that can measure them: as 4 is the greatest common measure of 8 and 12.

COMMONS, in a general sense, consist of all such men of property in the kingdom, as have not seats in the House of Lords, every one of whom has a voice in parliament, either personally, or by his representatives. In a free state, says judge Blackstone, every man, who is supposed a free agent, ought to be in some measure his own governor, and therefore a branch, at least, of the legislative power should reside in the whole body of the people. In so large a state as ours, it is therefore wisely contrived, that the people should do that by their representatives, which it is impracticable to perform in person; representatives chosen by a number of minute and separate districts, wherein all the voters are, or easily may be, distinguished.

COMMONS, in parliament, are the lower house, consisting of knights elected by the counties, and of citizens and burgesses by the cities and borough towns. In these elections, anciently, all the people had votes; but in the 8th and 10th of King Henry VI. for avoiding tumults, laws were enacted, that none should vote for knights but such as were freeholders, did reside in the county, and had forty shillings yearly revenue, equivalent to near 207. a year of our present money: the persons elected for counties to be milites notabiles, at least esquires, or gentlemen fit for knight-hood; native Englishmen, at least naturalized; and twen

ty-one years of age; no judge, sheriff, or ecclesiastical person, to sit in the House for county, city, or borough.

The House of Commons, in Fortescue's time, who wrote during the reign of Henry VI. consisted of upwards of 300 members In Sir Edward Coke's time their number amounted to 493. At the time of the union with Scotland, in 1707, there were 513 members for England and Wales, to which 45 representatives for Scotland were added: so that the whole number of members amounted to 558. In consequence of the union with Ireland in 1801, 100 members

were

added for that country; and the whole House of Commons now consists of 658 members.

COMMONS, Doctors. See COLLEGE of Civilians.

COMMUNIBUS locis, a Latin term, frequently used by philosophical writers, implying some medium or common relation between several places. Thus Dr. Keil supposes the ocean to be one quarter of a mile deep, communibus locis, that is, at a medium, or taking one place with another.

COMMUNIBUS annis has the same meaning with regard to time, that communibus locis has with regard to places.

whereby a body at rest is put into motion COMMUNICATION of motion, the act by a moving body; or it is the acceleration of motion in a body already moving. See MECHANICS.

COMMUTATION, in law, the change of a penalty or punishment from a greater to a less; as when death is commuted for banishment, &c.

COMOCLADIA, in botany, a genus of the Triandria Monogynia class and order. Natural order of Terebintaceæ, Jussieu. Essential character: calyx three-parted; corolla three-parted; drupe oblong, with a two-lobed nucleus. There are three species, natives of the West-Indies.

COMPANY, in commerce, an association formed for carrying on some branch of trade which requires a greater capital than private traders can usually command. or which is liable to engagements to which individual responsibility is deemed inadequate. In the infancy of commerce, almost every branch of foreign trade was carried on by a particular company, which generally possessed exclusive privileges; and such institutions were then necessary and beneficial; but in modern times, when individuals have accumulated larger capitals, and the improvement of navigation facilitated com

mercial intercourse with all parts of the world, and the general practice of insurance reduced the risk of foreign voyages to a regular addition to the cost of commodities, there are very few branches of foreign trade, which cannot be more advantageously carried on by individuals, or private co-partnerships, than by public companies.

When companies do not trade upon a common stock, but are obliged to admit any person properly qualified upon paying a certain fine, and agreeing to submit to the regulations of the company, each member trading upon his own stock, and at his own risk, they are called regulated companies. When they trade upon a joint stock, each member sharing in the common profit or loss in proportion to his share in this stock, they are called joint stock companies. The regulated companies for foreign trade, which at present subsist in Great Britain, are, the African Company, the Turkey, or Levant Company, the Russia Company, and the Eastland Company; they have, however, little more than a nominal existence, as any person may freely trade to these parts, without being a member of any company, on paying a very small additional duty. The principal joint stock companies for foreign trade are, the East India Company, and the Hudson's Bay Company; the South Sea Company has long given up its commercial undertakings, and the Sierra Leone Company has not yet acquired much importance. There is, however, a multitude of joint-stock companies established, some with exclusive privileges, but in general without any such advantage, for carrying on the banking business, for the different kinds of insurance, for granting and purchasing annuities, for making docks, navigable. canals, tunnels, roads, or rail-ways, and for working mines.

The utility of joint-stock companies for many of these purposes, and the success which some of them have experienced, has frequently produced a disposition for the multiplication of such establishments, and an opinion that they might be extended to almost every branch of trade and manufactures. The rage for forming public companies was, in 1720, carried to a degree of infatuation, which led thousands to subscribe to projects the most useless or impracticable, and gave rise to such a spirit of speculation and stock-jobbing as rendered necessary the interfe. rence of parliament. In consequence of the act then passed, 6 Geo. I. c. 18, up

wards of two hundred projected compa nies ended in the loss and disappointment of their respective subscribers. The recollection of this circumstance prevented for many years any similar attempts, till the frequency of subscriptions for making canals shewed the facility of raising large sums in this manner for any public undertakings, and led to the formation of joint stock companies for other purposes. In the course of the year 1807 proposals were circulated for establishing six new insurance companies; seven subscription breweries: four public dis tilleries; five genuine wine companies; two vinegar manufactories; a corn, flour, and provision company; a united public dairy; a new medical laboratory for the sale of genuine medicines; three coal companies; a clothing company; a linen company; a united woollen company; a paper company; two or three copper companies; a national light and heat company; two new banks; two commission sale companies; and a company for pur chasing canal shares, and lending money for completing canals. On the Attorney General proceeding against one or two of these intended companies, most of the others were abandoned.

COMPANY, East India, was established by a charter from Queen Elizabeth, dated 31st December, 1600, which, though not confirmed by act of parliament, was then considered as conferring an absolute exclusive privilege. Under this authority, the members of the company traded, for about twelve years, on their separate ca pitals, which, in 1613, they united into a joint-stock. In the reign of James I. the company obtained a new charter, and enlarged their capital to 1,500,000%; their profits at this time were not very great; and in the year 1655, Cromwell dissolved the Company and laid open the trade, but the mischief which followed obliged him to re-establish it about three years after. New charters were granted to the Company in 1661, 1669, and 1676, confirming all their former privileges; but as the se privileges were derived merely from royal charters, without the sanction of parliament, their exclusive right began to be questioned, and individuals frequently endeavoured to participate in a commerce which had become very ad vantageous. These private adventurers increasing in number, the Company, in 1683, found means to obtain another charter, by which all former charters were confirmed, and they were empow ered to seize the ships and merchandize of individual traders, to maintain military

forces, and to establish a court of judicature. They were soon after involved in war with the Mogul, and other embarrassments, which were attempted to be rectified by the oft tried expedient of a new charter; and being thus armed with new powers, they endeavoured to exclude ef fectually all individuals from interfering in the trade. In 1693, the charter of the Company became void, from default in payment of the tax imposed on their stock, but it was renewed, upon condition of being determinable upon three years notice.

The Company having sustained great losses during the war with France, and fallen into disrepute, a proposal was made in 1698, by Mr. Samuel Shepherd, and a number of other merchants, to advance for the public service 2,000,0007. at 8 per cent. interest, provided the sole exclusive trade to India was settled on them; the proposal was accepted, and a new company established by authority of par liament, and incorporated by charter, under the title of the English Company trading to the East Indies. The contentions and emulation between the old and new Companies was so great, that it be came necessary, even for the sake of public tranquillity, to unite them: this was partly effected in 1702, and in 1708 the two Companies were, by act of parliament, perfectly consolidated, under their present title of the United Company of Merchants of England trading to the East Indies. On the extension of the term of their exclusive trade to three years notice after Lady Day 1726, they lent to government the further sum of 1,200,000l. without receiving any additional interest, and as it was necessary to raise this sum by the sale of new stock, the capital of the company thus became 3,200,000/

In 1712 the term of the company's exclusive trade was extended to three years notice after Lady Day 1733; which by a subsequent agreement was prolonged to 1766; and again, to three years notice after Lady Day 1780, with a provision, that if their exclusive privileges should be then determined, by the re-payment of all sums which they had lent to government, with all arrears of interest, the Company should still remain a corpora tion for ever, and enjoy the East India trade in common with all other subjects.

The interference of the Company, about the year 1750, in the contentions between some of the native princes, led to the acquirement of considerable territories, and laid the foundation of the

extensive political authority which the Company now possess, and which comprehends dominions of greater extent than three times the area of the united kingdoms of Great Britain and Ireland.

On an average of 16 years preceding 1757, at which time the Company deriv ed little assistance from territorial revenues, the annual sales of their imports amounted to about 2,055,000%; and for the same period their exported goods and stores amounted annually, at their prime cost, to 238,000.; the bullion exported to 690,000l.; and they paid in discharge of bills of exchange 190,0001. During the succeeding ten years the sales of imports became increased to 2,150,000l. annually on the average, the quantity of bullion exported was reduced to about 120,000l. per annum, but the exports in goods and stores, and the money raised by bills of exchange were increased in a greater ratio compared with the returns from abroad. From 1767 to 17/7 the export of goods was 490,0007.; in bullion about 110,0007.; the sums raised by bills 458,000l. per annum; and by the aid afforded from the revenues, the investments were increased so as to produce about 3,300,000l. per annum; the affairs of the Company, during this period were however far from being in a flourishing situation; they were under the necessity of reducing their dividend, and of applying to parliament for assistance : but these difficulties being removed, the dividend, in 1778, was raised again to 8 per cent.

In the seven years ending with 1784, the average sales of the imports of the Company, notwithstanding the expensive war in which they were engaged, fell off in the proportion only of about 200,0002. annually; the export in bullion was for that period very trifling, but the goods and stores exported were increased to about half a million. The termination of the war left the Company's affairs both at home and abroad in great derangement. and the discussions which followed produced a general conviction,that some new arrangement was necessary for the future government of their extensive territorial acquisitions. The principal measure adopted was the establishment of a board of control, composed of a certain number of commissioners appointed by the king, and removeable at his pleasure. This board was authorised to check, superintend and control, the civil and military government and revenues of the Company, and to inspect the dispatches transmitted by the Directors to the different

presidencies. The appointment of the Governor-general, President, or Counsellors in the differentprecidencieswas made subject to the approbation and recall of his Majesty; and a tribunal was created for the trial of Indian delinquents. Some further regulations were adopted in 1786, the chief of which were, bestowing on the Governor general of India the high prerogative, of deciding in opposition to the sense of the majority of the council; and uniting the offices of Commander in Chief and Governor-general in the same person. The Company were empowered to increase their capital, by creating 800,0007. new stock, for which they obtained 1,240,0007. at the rate of 155 per cent. ; and in 1789 they were authorised to add a million to their capital, which was effected at the rate of 174 per cent. and preference was given to such persons as were stockholders at the time of subscription. Their annual dividend at this time was 8 per cent. and continued at this rate till 1793, when, in pursuance of an agreement with government for the renewal of their charter, another million was added to their capital, which thus became 6,000,0007. and the dividend was raised to 10 per cent.

By the agreement in 1793, the term of their exclusive trade was continued, under various regulations, for 20 years from the 1st of March, 1794, with the former proviso, that if, after the expiration of that term, their right to the sole trade shall cease, in consequence of three years previous notice being given by parliament, and the repayment of such sums as may be then due from the public, they shall continue a corporation notwithstanding, with power to carry on a free trade in common with other persons.

The Company is under the management of twenty-four directors, elected by the proprietors of the Company's stock, who hold 10007. or upwards. Such proprietors are likewise entitled to vote, on all occasions, in the quarterly and special general courts of the Company.

COMPANY, South Sea. The scheme for satisfying the national deficiencies by the establishment of this Company was arranged and brought forward in 1711, by Mr. Harley, then chancellor of the Exchequer, and the opinion of its efficacy for retrieving the languishing state of public credit was so great, that upon his being created Earl of Oxford, this service was particularly mentioned in the patent as one of the chief reasons for advancing him to that honour. It certainly afforded

considerable relief to government, by con solidating a variety of debts and arrears of interest, and making a general provision for them, which the expectation of gain from the commercial undertakings of the Company induced the proprietors readily to accept. These debts and deficiencies formed the first capital of the Company, which amounted to 9,177,967 l. 158. 4d. including half a million raised towards the current services of the year. In 1715 their capital was increased to 10,000,000l. and in 1719 to 11,746,844l. 8s. 10d.; but as all the sums thus subscribed into South Sea stock consisted of public debts, which were thus transferred from the individual proprietors of them to the company, it became necessary for the company to borrow money on bonds, to enable them to undertake their ostensible object of trade to South America.

In 1720, the Company engaged in one of the most memorable projects ever attemp ted in Great Britain. It was founded upon an agreement with government, autho rizing the Company to take in, either by subscription or purchase, all the public debts, at such prices as they could agree upon with the respective proprietors; and they were empowered to raise the money which would be necessary for making these purchases, either by calls upon their members, by annuities, bonds, or bills, or by opening subscriptions for new stock. It is difficult to conceive how the Company could expect to derive such permanent advantages from this transaction, as would support any considerable increase of their dividend; yet the expectation of great profits was so general, as to excite the most extensive, though the most extravagant, infatuation that was ever known in money transactions in this country. South Sea Stock was soon sold at double the sum that had been paid in upon it, and in the course of a short time reached the enor mous price of 1000 per cent. The rapidity of its fall, however, exceeded that by which it rose; for, before the end of the year, the difference of price was more than 800 per cent. in the course of only three weeks, by which thousands of persons suf fered very severe losses, and many were entirely ruined.

The only branches of trade in which the Company ever engaged were, in supplying the Spanish colonies in America with negroes, and the Greenland whalefishery. In both these undertakings the Company were considerable losers; in consequence of which, in 1748, they gave up the contract with Spain, and from that

period have not carried on any branch of commerce whatever, their whole business being confined to transferring and paying the dividends on the public funds, known by the title of South Sea Stock, Old and New South Sea Annuities, and South Sea Annuities of 1751.

The company is under the management of three governors and twenty-one directors. The whole expense of managing the concern in the year ending the 5th of January, 1807, was 10,7271. of which 3,692. was paid to the sub and deputy governors and directors, and 4,735. to 36 officers and clerks employed by them. The sum annually paid by the public to the South Sea Company is 14,713/. 10s. 6d. and about 701. for fees and allowances to the cashier.

COMPANY, Hudson's Bay, was established in 1670, by charter, granted by Charles II. to his cousin Prince Rupert, and seventeen other persons of distinction, who were incorporated for carrying on an exclusive trade to all parts of Hudson's Bay, and invested with great powers and privileges. The establishment excited the jealousy of the French, who in 1686 seized on all their forts or factories, except that at Port Nelson: they were, however, retaken in 1693; but they have been annoyed by the same power at several subsequent periods : and in 1782 a French squadron, under La Perouse, destroyed the settlements, forts, merchandise, &c. of the company, to the supposed value of about 500,0007. sterling, but without retaining possession of the place.

The Company's charter not being confirmed by parliament, they have no right in law to an exclusive trade; but the nature of the trade is such, that private adventu rers cannot engage in it in competition with them. The Company is under the direction of a governor, deputy governor, and a committee of seven members: their capital stock is said not to exceed 110,000. which is in the hands of a very small number of proprietors.

COMPANY, Sierra Leone, was instituted in the year 1791, with a capital of about 230,000. The general object of the subscribers was the introduction of civilization into Africa, for effecting which end they proposed to establish a secure factory at Sierra Leone, with the view to a new trade in produce, chiefly with the interior of the country; but the reception into the settlement of near 1200 blacks from Nova Scotia, in March, 1792, produced much embarrassment, which was increased in 1793 by the war, which interrupted their trade, VOL. III.

and subjected them to depredations. In 1794 the colony was attacked and taken by the French, who destroyed every de scription of property belonging to the Company, by which they sustained a loss of about 52,000. In 1798, however, the colony had so far recovered as to contain about 1200 inhabitants: the heads of families were about 300; of whom about one half were supported by their farms, many were mechanics, about 15 were retail shopkeepers, 20 or 25 followed the busines of fishing, 10 or 15 traded in small vessels of their own, 4 were employed as schoolmasters, 12 or 15 as seamen, and about 20 as labourers under the Company: from 3 to 400 native labourers worked in the settlement for hire, chiefly on the farms, which were increasing rapidly.

Further difficulties and losses have been experienced, from an insurrection of the Nova Scotians in 1800, and an attack of some of the neighbouring tribes in 1801, but the colony is now possessed of more effectual means of defence, and a great impediment to its progress has been done away by the abolition of the slave trade.

COMPANY, Dutch East India. This once celebrated establishment was formed by the union of a number of separate companies in 1602: it carried on for many years a very flourishing trade, which has since declined very rapidly, particularly from about the year 1770, and in 1799 it was entirely suspended. The Dutch have likewise had West India Companies, a Levant Company, Companies for the Baltic sea, the whale fishery, &c.

COMPANY, French East India, was established in1664, but never became of much importance. In 1769 the trade was laid open. A new Company was established in 1785, but was abolished in 1790. The other commercial Companies of France were, principally, a West India Company, a St. Domingo Company, the Senegal Company, the Mississippi Company, the Company of the West, and the Bastion Company.

COMPANY, Danith East India, and also the Swedish East Company, still possess a share in the commerce of the East, although it is not very considerable.

COMPANY, in military affairs, a small body of foot commanded by a captain, who has under him a lieutenant and ensign.

The number of centinels, or private soldiers, in a company, may be from 50 to 80; and a battalion conssists of thir

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