was ever seen in; to attempt to attain it, even though unembarrassed with the apparatus on the head, hands, and feet, the action would require a fixed point to hold by with at least one hand. But we are told it represents running, and, in fact, the position, which is crucial, never happens except when the body is in active movement; it is that of one foot revolved upon its apex-the balls of the toes. That is the terminal position in the action of the limb in progression. The parallel limb to that sustaining the action, as viewed laterally, is shown in its full extent behind the body, and seen behind the bearing limb from a side view, the upper part of the thigh and the buttock is pending obliquely, with heel to toe vertical. Are these the positions in which man in any normal attitude is ever seen? They are not. But, further, the combinations are impossible under any artificial effort that is, in running-the limbs being in their relative positions as shown; and these remarks hold equally well with all the phenomena as seen in the action of quadrupeds and bipeds.

A few words to sustain this criticism on the sustaining limb, which, as has been said, is shown revolving upon the balls of the toes, and heel elevated, the knee is shown to some extent bent, the thigh oblique from above forwards, and the leg slightly oblique, in the opposite direction; whereas, that position of the foot, only compatible with action, requires the angles of all the shafts to be quite open, and those of the thigh and leg to be vertical from the hip-joint down to the ankle, the knee-in particular the patella bone, with its muscles and ligament-being at rest in the instant. And now, about the position of the opposite limb, at that instant lifted; where, and how should that appear? Fully extended before that represented as finishing its action, and its attitude should be shown with the heel approaching to the ground, so that, as the one limb's function terminates with the foot revolved and in a vertical line with the head of the thigh, the parallel foot assumes its function; with the heel advanced on the ground, the foot revolves by the action of the shafts, which have their action conferred from the body, by its endowed mechanism and force.

When men determine on producing or in some way establishing as true what they only imagine to be so, they deceive none more than themselves, and accordingly it behoves all to whom such novelties are submitted, to obtain evidence of the truth of what is alleged, and which bear on the general merits of the matter.

From Professor Marey's diagrams let us turn to his text, which runs as follows:

"We will proceed no farther in the field of hypothesis, but we will, in conclusion, make an appeal to zealous experimentalists. Many who have been convinced of the great importance of this inquiry seem already to be engaged in this enterprise" (p. 101). "But what can be more difficult than to ascertain the common features, which unite acts so different as those of flying and creep

ing, as the gallop of a horse and the swimming of a fish? Still this has been frequently attempted" (p. 102). Yes, and successfully too, by Borelli, even if it were not in good measure understood, as we suspect it was, 2000 years earlier.

But we will let Professor Marey speak on, where he tells us, at page 111, that "In running and leaping we shall see that the body is entirely raised above the ground, and remains during a certain time. The weight of the body passes alternately from one leg to the other, and as each of the limbs places itself in turn before the other, the body is continually carried forward;" . . . . . "the body passes through periodical oscillations, the reaction of the impact of each foot on the ground; and the different parts of the body are subject to this reaction in various degrees " (p. 112).

"Motor Force.-This is found in the action of the extensor muscles of the thigh, the leg, and the foot."

"Of Running. This mode of progression, more rapid than walking, consists, like it, in alternate treads of two feet, whose step-curves follow each other at equal intervals; but it presents this difference, that in running the body leaves the ground for an instant at each step" (p. 128). And then, we ask, where does it go to?

"This trace shows us that the body executes each of its vertical elevations during the downward pressure of the foot, so that it begins to rise as soon as the foot touches the ground." But, is there not constantly a foot touching the ground, no less in running than in walking? "But again," the author continues, "it (the body) attains its maximum elevation at the middle of the pressure of the foot, and begins to descend again, in order to reach its minimum, at the moment when the foot has risen, and before the other has reached the ground " (p. 129).

We will not do injustice to common sense by commenting on the above. We are, however, challenged again.

At page 130 he continues, "We shall have again to recur to these phenomena when we come to speak of the paces of the horse, in which a similar suspension of the body exists, and which are on that account called elevated paces.'

This last phrase is new to us. The author will have to be asked, however, where he stores away his pulleys for dragging up his animals when they quit the ground, and also to what the tackle is attached above.

"Between the pressure of the two feet there is found to be silence in the rhythm, i.e., the expression of that instant of the course when the body is suspended above the ground" (p. 133). "Thus, in the gallop, the body is sometimes in the air, sometimes, on one foot, and sometimes supported by two" (p. 135). Bravo! "There is scarcely any branch of animal mechanics which has given rise to more labour and greater controversy than the question of paces in the horse" (p. 138).

Then why not relate the whole truth, and say, that no section of human knowledge of equal importance in our age, has been equally argued upon in defiance of old knowledge, philosophical inductions, and common sense.

Again, passing on to page 166, we read, "In fact, the animal must not only support the weight of its body, but give it violent forward impulses. The greatest energy seems to belong to the first impact. At this moment, the body, raised for an instant from the ground, falls again, and one leg alone sustains this shock."

In speaking again of the gallop, Professor Marey has adduced the following example:-"Children in their amusements often imitate this mode of locomotion when they play at horses" (p. 130).

And it seems to us that it is very unfortunate for both horses and the community, which has so much interest in them, that children are not the only section of its members who play at horses; and this brings to our mind a passage by an authority-a consummate horseman" Happy indeed would it be for the arts, if artists alone were its judges" (Berenger).

Professor Marey, with his abundant quotations, seems to us to have omitted the most relevant, as concerning his own subject, both as regards the history of the knowledge of it, and of the chief errors imported, i.e., hypothesis, indefinite, the propounding of which hindered the progress of truth, and led to the confusion into which the subject of animal locomotion has become involved, such as was never the case in its historical period before our day. Here we adduce a proposition from what we find to be an original source of error; we quote from Vial de Sanibel (date of work 1794), "It is well known to all who have observed the action of the horse, that the gallop consists of a repetition of bounds or leaps, more or less high, and more or less extended, in proportion to the strength and lightness of the animal."

Professor Marey has promulgated and amplified the above, without telling his readers where he obtained the information, by which, in a measure, this author would have relieved himself of a weight and responsibility-that of the revival and continuation of so much misconstruction; and the reading world would have known the source of the hypothesis it is asked to homologate.

Now, we will beg the reader to follow us and listen to the most ancient authority we have on the subject under consideration, viz., Xenophon, in his "Treatise on Horsemanship," translated from the original Greek, and published by Berenger in 1771.

In a popular treatise, written for the instruction of his young officers, Xenophon says, "A wide chest is to be preferred for beauty and strength, as it enables an horse to continue the same motion of his legs for a longer time without intermission." And again he says, "If the point of the shoulder (withers) is high, it gives the rider a safer seat, and makes the connexion stronger between the

shoulders and the body." And then we have, from the same philosopher and expounder of animal mechanism and locomotion, this paragraph, "When all parts of an horse are firm and solid, he is lighter for the course, and consequently more speedy."

These eloquent expositions by Xenophon are such as we endorse; they correctly make the head and body the seats of command and power, and the limbs the executing instrumental constituents; the animal being like a planet, a system in its own orbit, whatever the media upon or in, the earth, water, or air. Xenophon said almost all that was necessary for the zoologist to know regarding animal locomotion; and a wise sentence, used by him in another place, is in admirable harmony with the above: "The first part to be attended to is the foot; for an horse would be of no use though the upper parts were very beautiful, if the under parts were insufficient to support it."

This practical statement is made because of the exposure of the foot to injury, which, being avoidable and controllable, called for the specially applicable sentence. Defects, however, and especially painful effects, happening to any region of the limb, disable it, and also disable the body, and whole economy of action.

Xenophon was not alone among the Greeks whose noble productions are still available for our instruction on animal motion; for although their paintings, like many of their writings, have perished, sculpture in goodly measure remains, and by that we find men and quadrupeds represented in life-like movements; and in the choice masterpieces to be found in the public galleries, and also in the Elgin marbles, that which we affirm, that all power proceeds from the body, is found manifest. The learned physicist and philologist Borelli, fellow-worker with Galileo, and contemporary of Newton, did not attempt to supersede old knowledge which had been preserved and brought down for so many ages, but enlarged upon it. Borelli was only applying his newly-wrought-out knowledge to the elucidation of animal action, and thereby supplemented that which was being demonstrated in regard to universal matter.

Whilst refraining from extending our remarks further in detail, we may express regret that, since Professor Marey has quoted so largely, he had not, even at the cost of being more prolix, made reference to some works, the authors of which take different views to those which he has expounded on animal locomotion.

A Guide to the Practical Examination of Urine, for the Use of Physicians and Students. By JAMES TYSON, M.D. Philadelphia Lindsay and Blakiston: 1875. Pp. 182.

In spite of the number of books upon the urine, this little work will really prove a welcome addition to the student's library. It

is short but comprehensive, and not only contains a very concise and clear statement of the best methods for the practical examination of the urine, but also points out the fallacies to which these are subject, and the precautions which are consequently necessary to be taken. We know of no better book on the subject for a student preparing for clinical examination.

Myringomycosis Aspergillina (Fungus Ear Disease). By JAMES PATTERSON CASSELLS, M.D., M.R.C.S. Lond., etc., Surgeon to, and Lecturer on Aural Surgery at, the Glasgow Dispensary for Diseases of the Ear.

THIS pamphlet of fifteen pages (reprinted from Glasgow Medical Journal, January 1875) is the first of its kind in English aural literature. Our author's attention was drawn to "look out for this form of ear disease in this country, by his having been asked by James Hinton, previous to the publication of his work "Aural Surgery, 1874," if he had met with a case of ear disease caused by the aspergillus fungus. Mr Hinton added that he had not seen such a form of ear disease in England, nor did he know of any aural surgeon who had. Dr Cassells replied that, although he was quite familiar with the appearance of the disease from his Continental training, he had not met the disease in his own practice at home. His attention having been drawn to fungi, he blames them for the "peculiar symptoms and erratic course of some cases of ear disease which have passed through his hands, and "in one week thereafter [after receiving Hinton's question, we presume], viz., May 1874," he finds aspergillus flavus in three cases; "and in June, aspergillus nigricans in both ears in one case, and since then, several cases of the former variety of fungus have been seen by me in my private practice," our author states. After glancing for a moment at the history of the discovery of aural fungi, and notwithstanding the mention of earlier discoverers and recorders, he ascribes "all the honour of a new discovery to Schwartze of Halle, 1865. Dr Cassells's account of the history of a case of fungus ear disease is accurate, and the signs by which one may readily recognise a case of ear disease due to aspergillus given by him are the results of experience with careful study. We are more inclined to the use of some of the hyposulphites as a parasiticide, but the success of our treatment with them may have been that our alcoholic treatment was used with a very strong spirit, the spiritus vini rectificatissimi of the Prussian Pharmacopoeia. This in some cases caused great pain, probably explained by the highly sensitive corium being exposed, compelling us to have recourse to the hyposulphites. Of late we have used beneficially a mixture of equal parts of iodoform and burnt alum. Our author figures a