laws and cases in admiralty. As to the excepted cases the decisions of the circuit court of appeals are final, unless that court certifies the case or any questions therein to the Supreme Court for its decision. Where questions of importance are involved, the Supreme Court may require any case to be certified to it by the circuit court of appeals.

(3) From the highest court of a state. Final judgments of the highest courts of the states may be reviewed in the Supreme Court of the United States upon writ of error, when such judgment is adverse to a claim or defense based upon the constitution or laws of the United States. If the decision of the state court is in favor of the claim made, the Supreme Court of the United States has no jurisdiction to review it.

(4) From the courts of the District of Columbia or the territories. The judgments of the court of appeals of the District of Columbia may be reviewed by the Supreme Court of the United States, where the matter involves the question of jurisdiction, prize cases, constitutions, treaties and statutes.

The judgments of the supreme courts of the territories may be reviewed by the Supreme Court of the United States where the federal constitution, statutes or treaties are brought in question; where the validity of any patent or copyright is in question, or where the matter in dispute exceeds $5,000 in value and would have been appealable if the judgment had been by a district court of the United States.

Judgments from the Supreme Court of Porto Rico or from U. S. District Court of Porto Rico may be reviewed when copyright, treaty, constitution or federal statutes are involved, and all other matters involving over $5,000.

Appeals lie from the Supreme Court of Hawaii for all cases appealable from state supreme courts and all

other cases over $5,000. Appeals also lie from the district court of Alaska where case involves prize matters, constitution, treaties or federal statutes.

Cases from the Philippine Supreme Court may be reviewed if they involve federal constitution, treaties or statutes, or sums exceeding $25,000.

(5) From the court of claims. Appeals are allowed from the court of claims to the Supreme Court of the United States upon all judgments. There is a jurisdictional limit of $3,000 in some cases.

§ 638. Jurisdiction of the circuit courts of appeals. -The circuit courts of appeals were established by the act of March 3, 1891, there being created one court for each of the nine circuits. Each court is composed of three judges, who may be the justice of the Supreme Court assigned to that circuit, the circuit judges or the district judges within the circuit.

The circuit court of appeals has only appellate jurisdiction, and this only of cases coming from the district courts within the circuit, and of cases coming from territorial courts that may be assigned to the circuit. The entire appellate jurisdiction is divided between the Supreme Court and the circuit court of appeals, and the jurisdiction of the latter embraces all the appealable cases except those cognizable by the Supreme Court directly. There is no jurisdictional limit on account of the amount involved. The cases in which the judgment of the circuit court of appeals is final have been shown above.

§ 639. Jurisdiction of the district courts.-The district courts have original jurisdiction of all matters coming within the general jurisdiction of the federal courts, except the few cases over which the Supreme Court of the United States has original jurisdiction, and the re

stricted class of cases coming under the jurisdiction of the court of claims. Prior to March 3, 1911, this general jurisdiction was divided between the district courts and the circuit courts, but by the general reorganization act of that date, the circuit courts were merged with the district courts.

$640. The court of customs appeals.-The PayneAldrich tariff law of 1909 created the court of customs appeals, composed of a presiding judge and four associates, whose jurisdiction is to hear appeals from the Board of General Appraisers on questions of law and jurisdiction.

§ 641. Jurisdiction of the court of claims.—This court was established for the purpose of regularly investigating claims against the government, and thereby relieving and protecting congress. It is composed of five judges, who sit at Washington.

The court is required to hear and determine, (1) all claims founded upon the Constitution of the United States, or any law of congress except for pensions, or upon any regulation of an executive department; (2) all claims upon any contract, express or implied, with the government, or for damages in cases not sounding in tort, in respect of which claims the party would be entitled to redress if the United States were suable, except war claims; (3) all counter demands of the government against any such claimant; (4) petition for adjustment of accounts by debtors of the United States; (5) certain questions that may be submitted by heads of departments, to obtain a precedent for their guidance. It also has jurisdiction in a number of minor matters not of general interest.

§ 642. United States commissioners.-As auxiliaries to the courts, United States commissioners are appointed by the judges of the circuits, and act as examining magistrates in hearing charges for violation of the laws of the United States, and where a probable case of guilt is made out they admit the accused to bail for his appearance before the court having jurisdiction of the offense, or if the offense is not bailable commit the accused to prison. These commissioners have no jurisdiction to pronounce final judgment in any case.

§ 643. Courts of the territories and of the District of Columbia. These are not strictly a part of the federal judicial system. The provisions of the constitution

relative to courts of the United States do not refer to courts of the territories. Upon admission of a territory to the Union as a state, it is the state courts and not the federal courts that are the successors of the territorial courts. The jurisdiction of these courts is a matter of special interest only in the locality of the courts.

§ 644. State courts.-The organization and jurisdiction of the state courts are matters within the exclusive province of the several states, and it would be out of place here to attempt to consider the subject in detail. There are, however, some general features of the American state courts which are common to nearly all of them, and which should be noticed in outline at least. Some of these courts are of limited and inferior jurisdiction, and some are courts of general and superior jurisdiction.

§ 645. Jurisdiction of state courts.-Courts held by justices of the peace, mayors and police judges are courts of inferior and limited jurisdiction. In some civil matters involving small interests, in petty misdemeanors, the

judgments of these courts are final, but where the matters involved are more important appeals lie from their judgments to courts of superior jurisdiction. These courts also have power to issue warrants for the arrest of offenders of the higher grades, and after examination to discharge, admit them to bail, or where the crime is not bailable to commit them to jail to abide the finding of the grand jury, or the judgment of the court having final jurisdiction. In some of the states the courts of superior jurisdiction are divided and classified as chancery courts, common-law courts (including civil and criminal courts) and probate courts, each having jurisdiction over such subjects as are implied by their names. These courts have original and final jurisdiction over the more important cases subject to review on writ of error by the appellate courts of the states.

In most of the states, codes have been adopted by which the distinctions in the forms of equity and common-law pleadings have been abolished and one form of action is substituted under which all rights legal and equitable may be enforced. In a few of the states the

old distinction between proceedings in equity and at law are still maintained. To ascertain the scope and limits. of the jurisdiction of these state courts, recourse must be had to the laws creating them.