ed with a slight shed, the nature and appearance of which are well exhibited in the preceding picture.

3. The first part of the process consists in spinning the material into yarn. The principle on which this is effected, is the same as that by which cotton or wool is drawn out and twisted into threads, although the machinery, and the mode of operating, are different.

1. ROPES may be made of any vegetable | mile in length. These are usually coversubstance, which has a fibre sufficiently flexible and tenacious. The Chinese, and other orientals, in making ropes, use the ligneous parts of certain bamboos and reeds, the fibrous covering of the cocoanut, the filaments of the cotton pod, and the leaves of certain grasses; but the bark of plants and trees, is the most productive of fibrous matter suitable to this manufacture. That of the linden-tree, the willow, and the bramble, is frequently used. In Europe and America, however, the fibres of hemp and flax are more frequently employed, for this purpose, than any other material.

2. The operations of rope-making are commonly performed in rope-walks, which are sometimes more than a quarter of a

4. The kind of wheel employed in spinning rope-yarn, is also exhibited in the cut. A band passes around the periphery, and over the semicircle above it, in which is placed a number of wheels, the pivots of which terminate, on the other side, in small hooks.

5. The spinner, having a quantity of the

material properly disposed about the waist, || yarns. A further twisting of the strands, attaches a number of fibres to one of the during this part of the process, is preventhooks, which, being put in motion by the ed by the motion of the loper, which gives band passing over the whirl, twists them way to the strain, and, at the same time, rapidly into yarn: the part already twisted causes the strands to entwine about each draws along with it more fibres from the other, and form a cord. To prevent them bundle, and, as the spinner is regulating || from entwining too rapidly, an instrument their uniform arrangement, he walks back- || is interposed, which, from its form, is called ward towards the other end of the walk.

6. When the thread has been spun to the proposed length, the spinner cries out to another, who immediately takes it off from the hook, gives it to a third person, and, in turn, attaches his own fibres to the same hook. In the meantime, the first spinner keeps fast hold of the end of his yarn, to prevent it from untwisting or doubling; and as it is wound on the reel, he proceeds up the walk, keeping the yarn of an equal tension throughout.

7. The second part of the process consists in forming the yarn into various kinds of ropes. The component parts of cordage, are called strands; and the operation of uniting them with a permanent twist, is called laying, when applied to small ropes, and closing, when applied to cables or other large ropes.

the top it has two or more notches, which terminate at the apex, and a handle called a staff. As the top is moved from the loper to the wheel, it regulates the degree of twist which the cord or rope is to receive.

10. The principle on which large cordage is laid, or closed, is the same, although some part of the machinery is different. The strands for large ropes and cables are formed of many yarns, and require con|| siderable hardening. This cannot be done with whirls driven by a wheel-band: it requires the power of a crank, turned by hand, or by some other considerable force. The strands, also, when properly hardened, become very stiff, and, when bent round the top, cannot transmit force enough to close the unpliant rope: it is, therefore, necessary that the loper, also, be moved by

a crank.

8. The simplest twist is formed of two 11. Cordage, which is to be exposed to strands. The thread used by sail-makers, the alternate action of air and water, is and pack-thread, furnish examples of this usually tarred. The application of this kind: but cordage, with two strands, is not substance is made, in most cases, while much used; that with three, is the most || the material is in a state of yarn. In efusual. Lines and cords less than one and || fecting this object, the threads are drawn a half inches in circumference, are laid by || through boiling tar, and then passed bemeans of the spinning-wheel. Prepara-tween rollers, or through holes surroundtory to this operation, the workman fastens ed with oakum, to remove the superfluous the hither end of the yarns to separate tar. In like manner, ropes and cables are whirl-hooks, and the remote ends to the superficially tarred. hook of a swivel, called the loper.

9. The strands having been properly || distended, the spinning-wheel is turned in the same direction as when twisting the

12. Various improvements have been made, in the machinery for performing the different operations of rope-making; but, these not having been generally adopted,

it is unnecessary to notice them more particularly; especially, as they do not affect the general principles of the art.

13. Within a few years, cotton-yarn has been employed in the manufacture of ropes; but this material has not yet been sufficiently tested, to determine its fitness for the purpose. A kind of vegetable fibre brought from Manilla, and hence called Manilla hemp, is very extensively applied in making ropes, and, for some purposes, is preferred to other materials.

than a bed-cord. The formation of cloth from hemp, is also very common; and in this case, the yarn for the coarse cloths is spun on the rope-maker's wheel, in the manner already described. The cloth is generally used for making bags, sacking bottoms for beds, and sails for vessels.

16. Rope-making is a manufacture of general utility, as cordage of some kind is used more or less in every family in all civilized communities: nor are there many trades capable of being carried on, with convenience, without it. But the great utility of cordage, in all its varieties, is most conspicuous in the rigging and equipment

14. The intestines of animals are composed of very powerful fibres, and those of sheep and lambs are manufactured into what is called cat-gut, for the use of mu-of vessels; and the extensive demand for sical instrument-makers, hatters, watch-it, in this application, renders rope-making makers, and a variety of other artificers. one of the most important and extensive Animal hair, as that from the tail and of the primitive trades. mane of horses, is frequently employed as the material for ropes; and such are durable, elastic, and impervious to moisture. They, however, are not applicable in cases where the rope is subject to considerable friction.

15. Hemp is cultivated in various parts of the world, and especially in Russia, whence it is exported to other countries in great quantities. It is also produced, to a considerable extent, in the state of Kentucky, and many other parts of the United States. Flax is still more generally cultivated, than hemp; but its chief application is to the manufacture of cloth, as it does not answer well for any cordage larger

17. Nor does the utility of cordage end with its application to the purposes for which it was originally designed. Old ropes are converted into oakum, by untwisting and picking them to pieces. The oakum thus produced is driven into the seams of vessels, to render them watertight.

18. As regards the invention of this art, nothing can be gathered from ancient records. We only know, in general, that cordage was in considerable use among the nations of antiquity, especially among the Greeks and Romans, who probably learned its application to rigging vessels from the Phoenicians.

5. The instruments employed in performing the operations of the tailor, are few and simple: the principal of these are the shears, the scissors, the needle, the thimble, the bodkin, the goose, and the press-board.

9. We have no means of determining at what period of the world this art was first practised, as a particular profession. We know, in general, that the dress of the ancients was usually more simple in its construction, than that of the people of modern times; and, consequently, it re

6. The great art of a master-tailor consists in fitting the dress to his customer, inquired less skill to put the materials in the such a manner as to conceal any defect of required form. It may, therefore, be inform, and display his person to the best ferred, that either the females or the slaves advantage. He should, therefore, be a of each family usually made up the clothing good judge of the human figure; as from of all its members. this knowledge arises, chiefly, the superiority of one workman over another, in this branch of the business.

7. The first hint on the art of clothing the human body, was given to man by the Deity himself; for we read in the Scriptures, that "Unto Adam and to his wife the Lord God made coats of skins, and clothed them." From that time to the present, the art of cutting out garments, and of sewing their different parts together, has been practised, more or less, in every place, where there has been any degree of civilization.

10. The distinguishing dress of the Romans was the toga, or gown; as that of the Greeks was the pallium, or cloak. The toga was a loose woollen robe, and covered nearly the whole person: it was round and close at the bottom, and open at the top, having no sleeves, but only a large flap, or lappet, which was either thrown over the left shoulder, or over the head, to protect it from the heat or cold.

11. The Romans, at an early period of their history, used no other dress, and it was also, at that time, worn by the women. Afterwards, they wore, under the toga, a white woollen vest called tunica, which extended a little below the knee: at first it was without sleeves. Tunics reaching to the ancles, or having sleeves, were reckoned effeminate; but under the emperors, they became fashionable.

8. For a long time, it is probable that thongs and the sinews of animals were used, for want of thread made of silk or vegetable fibre; and, doubtless, the same necessity caused the substitution of pointed bones and thorns, instead of needles. Such rude materials and instruments are still employed for similar purposes, by savage nations. The dresses of the people of Greenland are sewed together with thongs made of the intestines of the seal, or of some fish, which they have the address to cut fine, after having dried them in the air; and even the inhabitants of Peru, although considerably advanced in civiliza-as, by this act, the individual assumed tion, when that country was first visited by the Spaniards, made use of long thorns, in sewing and fixing their clothes.

12. The toga was usually assumed at the age of seventeen. Until then, the youth wore a kind of gown, bordered with || purple, denominated toga prætexta; and such a garment was also worn by females, until they were married. The youthful dress was laid aside, and the toga virilis, or manly toga, assumed with great solemnity;

the responsibility of a citizen. The toga was worn chiefly in the city, and only by Roman citizens.