shorter, to manifest their abhorrence of the reigning mode.

19. The worldly-wise, however, observed that a periwig procured for the wearer a degree of respect and deference which otherwise might not have been accorded; and hence there was a strong tendency to the use of this appendage. The judges and physicians, especially, understood well this influence of the wig, and gave to it all the advantages of length and breadth. The fashion, at length, was adopted by the ecclesiastics themselves, not only in England, but in most of the European kingdoms, as well as in the British colonies of America.

20. The fashion, however, except in cases of baldness, wherein alone it is excusable, is now nearly banished from Europe and America. This desirable change || was effected, principally, by the example of republican America, and by the influence of the French Revolution. The law passed in England in 1795, imposing a tax of a guinea a head per annum on those who wore hair-powder, contributed to the same result, as well as to diminish the use of that article.

21. The manufacture of wigs and false curls, is an important branch of the business of the barber. The first process in forming a wig, is to produce in the hair about to be used for this purpose, a disposition to curl. This is done by winding it on a cylinder of wood or earth, and after

wards boiling it in water. It is then dried, and baked in an oven. Thus prepared, it is woven on a strong thread, and is subsequently sewn on a caul fitted to the head. False curls are made on the same principle.

22. Wigs and false curls were not made, in ancient times, precisely in the same manner; although their appearance, when finished, was probably similar. The hair was then applied directly to a piece of thin leather, by means of some adhesive substance, or composition.

23. Many barbers, especially those who have a reputation for making wigs and false curls in a fashionable style, keep for sale perfumery, as well as a variety of cosmetics.

24. From the eleventh to the eighteenth century, surgical operations were almost exclusively performed by the barbers and bath-keepers. As phlebotomy was one of the chief sources of profit to the barbers, they adopted a sign, emblematical of this operation. It consisted of a pole, representing the staff which the individual held in his hand, while the blood was flowing from the arm. The white band wound spirally about the pole, represented the fillet of linen, with which the arm was afterwards secured.

25. It is hardly necessary to remark, that the same sign is still employed by the barbers, although, with a few exceptions, they have ceased to perform the operation of which it was significant.

THE TANNER.

1. THE art of tanning consists in converting hides and skins into leather, by impregnating them with astringent matter. 2. It is impossible to determine the period at which the art of tanning was discovered. It was doubtless known to the ancients, and probably to the antediluvians, in some degree of perfection; since skins were applied as means of clothing the human body, before the arts of spinning and weaving were practised. It is likely, however, that they were applied to this purpose, for a considerable time, in their natural state; and that accident, at length, suggested the means of rendering them more applicable, by saturating them with certain mineral or vegetable substances.

3. Although the art of converting skins

into leather was practised in remote ages, yet it was not until near the end of the eighteenth century, that the true principle of the process was understood. Before this time, it was supposed that the astringent principle of the agents employed was a resinous substance, which adhered mechanically to the fibres, and thus rendered them firm and insoluble. The correct explanation was first given by Deyeux, and afterwards more fully developed by M. Seguin. These chemists clearly proved, that the formation of leather was the result of a chemical union between a substance called tannin, and the gelatinous part of the skin.

4. The subject, however, was not thoroughly understood, and reduced to scientific principles, until the year 1803, when

5. The skin which envelopes the bodies of animals, consists of three layers: that on the outside is a thin, white, elastic membrane, called the cuticle, or scarf skin; that on the inside is a strong membrane, denominated the cutis, or true skin; between these two is a very thin membrane, to which anatomists have given the name rete mucosum, and in which is situated the substance which gives colour to the animal. The cutis is composed of fibres, which run in every direction, and, being by far the thickest layer, is the one that is converted into leather.

6. The skins of large animals, such as those of the ox and horse, are denominated hides; and those of smaller animals, as of the calf, goat, and sheep, are called skins. Of the former description, is made thick, of the latter, thin leather. The process of-tanning different skins, varies in many particulars, according to the nature of the leather, and the uses to which it is to be applied.

7. The general process of changing thick hides into sole-leather, is as follows: They are first soaked in water, to free them from dirt and blood; and then, if rigid, they are beaten and rubbed, or rolled under a large stone, to render them pliable.|| They are next soaked in lime-water, or hung up in a warm room, and smoked until a slight putrescency takes place. The hair, cuticle, rete mucosum, on one side, and the fleshy parts on the other, are

8. Nothing now remains but the cutis, or true skin. Several hides, in this state of preparation, are put together into a vat, for the purpose of impregnating them with tannin. This substance is found in astringent vegetables, and is obtained in a proper state for application, by infusion in water. In that condition, it is called ooze, which is first applied in a weak state.

9. After the ooze of different degrees of strength has been renewed several times, they are put between layers of bark, and suffered to remain several months; fresh bark, from time to time, being supplied. The whole process generally occupies from twelve to sixteen months. When strong solutions of tannin are used, the leather is formed in a much shorter time; but, in that case, it is much more rigid, and liable to crack. It is rendered smooth and compact, by beating it with a wooden beetle, or by passing it between rollers.

10. Oak bark, on account of its cheapness, and the quantity of tannin which it contains, is more extensively employed by tanners, than any other vegetable substance. In sections of country where this kind cannot be conveniently obtained, the bark of the hemlock, spruce, and chestnut, the leaves of the sumach, and various other astringents, are substituted.

11. The process of tanning calf-skins is somewhat different in many of its details. They are first put into a solution of lime, where they remain during ten or fifteen days, and are then scraped on both sides, on the beam, with a circular knife, as in the former case, and for the same purpose. They are then washed in water, and afterwards immersed in an infusion of hen or pigeon's dung: here they are left for a

week or ten days, according to the state of the weather and other circumstances; during which time, they are frequently handled, and scraped on both sides. By these means, the lime, oil, and saponaceous matter, are discharged, and the skin is rendered pliable.

12. They are next put into a vat containing weak ooze, and afterwards removed to several others of regularly increasing || strength. In the mean time, they are taken up and handled every day, that they may be equally acted upon by the tanning principle. The time occupied in the whole process, is from two to six months. The light and thin sorts of hides, designed for upper leather, harnesses, &c. are treated in a similar manner.

13. The tanner procures his hides and skins from various sources, but chiefly from the butcher, and from individuals who kill the animals for their own consumption. Great quantities of dry hides are also obtained from South America, || where cattle are killed in great numbers, principally for the sake of this valuable envelope of their bodies

THE CURRIER.

1. It is the business of the currier to dress the thinner kinds of leather, which he procures from the tanner in an unfinished state. In most cases, in the United States, except in and near large cities, the business of tanning and currying are usually united in the same individual; or, at least, the two branches of business are carried on together, by the aid of workmen skilled in their respective trades.

2. The mode of dressing the different kinds of skins, varies in some respects; but, as the general method of operating is the same in every sort, a description ap

plicable in one case will convey a sufficiently accurate idea of the whole. We shall, therefore, select the calf-skin, since it is more frequently the subject of the currier's skill, than any other.

3. The skin is first soaked in water, until it has become sufficiently soft, and then shaved with the currier's knife, on the inner side, over the currier's beam: it is then placed on a table, somewhat inclined from the workman, and scoured on both sides with the edge of a narrow, smooth stone, set in a handle; and again, with an iron sleeker, of a similar shape. The skin is next stuffed with a composition of tallow and tanner's oil on the flesh side, and then hung up to dry. Afterwards it is rubbed on the hair side with a board, and again scraped on the flesh side with the knife. Having been thus prepared, the skin is blacked on the flesh side with lampblack and tanner's oil, and subsequently rubbed with paste, applied with a brush. When it has been dried, the whole process is finished by rubbing both sides with a glass sleeker.

4. Horse hides are blacked on the hair side, or, as the curriers term it, on the grain, with a solution of copperas water. Leather designed for harnesses, for covering carriages, and for other similar purposes, is also blacked on that side in the

same manner.

5. The trade of the currier is divided into two or three branches. Some dress only calf-skins, and other thick leather designed for shoes, harnesses, and carriages: others confine themselves to dressing skins, which are to be applied to binding books, and to other purposes requiring thin leather. It may be well to remark here, that the dressers of thin leather usually tan the skins themselves, using the leaves of sumach, instead of bark.

2. The shoes of the ancient Egyptians were made of the papyrus. The Chinese, as well as the inhabitants of India, and some other nations of antiquity, manufactured them from silk, rushes, linen, wood, the bark of trees, iron, brass, silver, and gold, and sometimes ornamented them with precious stones.

3. The Romans had various coverings for their feet; the chief of which were, the calceus and the solea. The calceus somewhat resembled the shoe we wear at present, and was tied upon the instep with

was a thick cork sole, covered above and beneath with leather, and neatly stitched on the edge: it left the upper part of the foot bare, and was fastened to it by means of straps, which were crossed over the instep, and wound about the ankle. Roman citizens wore the calceus with the toga, when they went abroad in the city; while the solea was worn at home, and on journeys. The solea was also used at entertainments; but it was changed for the calceus, when the guests were about to

surround the table.

4. The senators wore shoes which came up to the middle of the leg, having a golden or silver crescent on the top of the foot. The shoes of the women were generally white, sometimes red, scarlet, or pur