length, by a simple contrivance, which consists of a narrow board, a wooden pin, and the blade of a razor: the pin and razor are placed perpendicularly to the board, at a distance determined by the length of the proposed wick. The wicks are next put upon cylindrical rods, about three feet long; and a great number of these are arranged on a long frame. ever, a more complicated apparatus is used, by which every part of the process is greatly expedited. 9. Mould candles are made very differently. The moulds consist of a frame of wood, in which are arranged several hollow cylinders, generally made of pewter: at the lower extremity of each cylinder, is a small hole, for the passage of the wick, 5. To obtain the tallow in a proper state which is introduced by means of a hook for use, it is separated from the membranous on the end of a wire. The cotton is fastpart of the suet, by boiling the latter in an ened at the other end, and placed in a periron or copper kettle, and then subjecting pendicular situation in the centre of the the cracklings to the action of a press. shafts, by means of a wire, which passes The substance that remains, after the tal- through the loops of the wicks. The low has been expressed, is called greaves, || melted tallow, having been poured on the which are sometimes applied to fattening top of the wooden frame, descends into ducks for market: this is especially the each mould; and after the candles have case in the city of London. become sufficiently cold, they are extract 10. Candles are also made of bees-wax and spermaceti; but the mode of their manufacture differs in no particular from that of common mould candles. The wicks for wax-candles are usually made of a peculiar kind of cotton, which grows in Asiatic Turkey. 6. The tried tallow is prepared for ap-ed from the cylinders with a bodkin, which plication to the wicks, by heating it to a is inserted into the loop of the wick. One proper temperature: it is then poured into person can thus mould two or three huna suitable receptacle, where it is kept in dred pounds in a day. order either by a moderate fire underneath, or by the occasional addition of hot tallow. 7. The broaches, as the sticks with their wicks are called, are taken up, several at a time, either between the fingers or by means of a simple instrument denominated || a rake, and dipped into the tallow: they are then returned to the frame, and suffered to cool, while successive broaches are treated in the same way. The dipping is repeated until the candles have been thick- || ened to the proper size. 11. Before the wax is applied to this purpose, the colouring matter is discharged. This is effected by bleaching the wax, in the following manner: it is first divided into flakes, or thin laminæ, by pouring it, 8. In the preceding plate is represented in a melted state, through a colander upon a workman in the act of dipping several a cylindrical wheel, which, at the same broaches of candles, suspended on a rake, time, is kept revolving, while partly imwhich he holds in his hands. The mode mersed in cold water: the wax, having of making dipped candles just described,|| been removed from the water, is placed is more generally practised than any other, upon a table or floor covered with some and in this manner five or six hundred kind of cloth: here it is occasionally sprinpounds can be made by one hand, in a kled with water, until the bleaching has single day. In some establishments, how-been completed. The process occupies several weeks, or even months, according to the state of the weather, that being best which is most favourable to a rapid evaporation. 12. Spermaceti is a substance separated from sperm-oil, which is obtained from a species of whale, called physeter macrocephalus, or spermaceti cachalot. This oil is obtained both from the head and body of the animal, but that procured from the former contains twice the quantity of spermaceti. 13. To separate the spermaceti from the oil yielded by the body, it is first heated, then put into casks, and suffered to stand two or three weeks, in order to granulate: || the oily part is now filtrated through strainers; and the remainder, which is called foots, is again heated, and put into casks: after standing several weeks, these are put into bags, and submitted to the action of a powerful press. The spermaceti, thus obtained, is melted and moulded into cakes. The oil thus separated from the spermaceti is called spring or fall strained, because it is filtered and expressed only during those seasons of the year. 14. The oil from the head of the whale is treated like that from the body, in almost every particular: the difference consists,|| principally, in omitting the use of the strainer, and in the employment of stronger bags and a more powerful press. The oil obtained from the head-matter is called pressed, since it is separated by the action of the press only: it is also denominated winter-strained, because the operation is performed in the cold weather. || The oil of this last pressing is called taut pressed, and is the least valuable kind, since a slight degree of cold causes it to become thick. The spermaceti obtained from the common sperm-oil, and that from the head-matter, are melted together, and purified by means of potash-ley. 16. The sperm-oil, thus freed from the spermaceti, is extensively applied in lamps as a means of illumination; and, for many purposes, it is far more convenient than tallow. In the country, lard is frequently employed instead of oil, especially by the German population. In some European and Asiatic countries, vegetable oils supply the place of animal fats, in this application. 17. The origin of the art of making candles, is not known. It is evident, however, that the business is comparatively modern, since the Greeks and Romans, as well as other nations of antiquity, employed torches of pine and fir, and lamps supplied with oil, in the production of artificial light. The words in the scriptures, translated candle, imply nothing more nor less than a light produced by some kind of oil consumed in a lamp. 18. The lamps in ancient times were suspended by a chain or cord from the ceiling, or supported on stands and moveable tables, which were called by the Romans lampadaria, or candelabra. Many specimens of this utensil are preserved in several museums of Europe, and some have lately been found in the ruins of Herculaneum. 19. The Chinese make their candles from the tallow obtained from the seeds and capsules of the tallow-tree. This tree, which is produced in great abundance in China, is said to be cultivated in various parts of South Carolina and Georgia. In appearance, it resembles the Lombardy 15. The spermaceti, having been melted and moulded into cakes, is reserved until the succeeding summer, when it is cut into thin shavings, by means of a large shave, similar to the spoke-shave of the wheelwrights, and again pressed as before. || poplar. THE COMB-MAKER, AND THE BRUSH-MAKER. THE COMB-MAKER. 1. THE comb is a well-known instrument, employed in cleansing, dressing, and confining the hair. It is made of various materials, but most commonly of tortoiseshell, the horns and hoofs of cattle, ivory, bone, and several kinds of hard wood. 2. It is impossible to determine the period of the world at which it was introduced, since history and tradition, the sources from which we obtain information of this nature, are silent with regard to its origin. It is evident, however, that the comb is an instrument of primary necessity; and hence it must have been invented in the earliest ages. This opinion is confirmed by the fact, that the comb has been frequently found in use amongst savages, when first visited by civilized men. 3. Combs employed in fixing the hair, are made of tortoise-shell, or of the horns of cattle. The genuine tortoise-shell is taken from the testudo imbricata, or hawk'sbill turtle; but a kind of shell, inferior in quality, is obtained from the testudo caretta, or loggerhead turtle. These turtles inhabit the seas of warm and temperate climates; but they are especially numerous in the West Indian seas, where shell is a valuable article of commerce: that from St. Domingo is especially esteemed, for its brilliancy of shade and colour. 4. The shell of the hawk's-bill turtle was extensively employed for ornamental purposes by the refined nations of antiquity, although we have no account of its application to the manufacture of combs. The Greeks and Romans decorated with it the doors and pillars of their houses, as welled with a wooden clamp, by the part which as their beds and other furniture. The is designed to be left for the back of the Egyptians dealt largely with the Romans, comb; and when twins, or two combs, are in this elegant article. to be formed from one piece, the other end is bent down, so as to render the upper surface considerably convex: to this surface the twinning saw is applied by the hand of the workman, who makes a number of incisions; which are completed both ways with two different kinds of saws, and the end of each tooth is cut from the back of the opposite comb with an instrument called a plugging awl. 5. The general length of the hawk's-bill turtle is about three feet from the bill to the end of the shell; but it has been known to measure five feet, and to weigh five or six hundred pounds: in the Indian ocean, especially, specimens of prodigious magnitude are said to have occurred. 6. The shell employed in the arts grows upon the back and feet of the animal: that on the back, consists of thirteen laminæ, 10. The twinning machine was inventor plates, which lap over each other, like ed about fifteen years ago, by a Mr. Thotiles on the roof of a house. The plates mas, of Philadelphia; but it has been sucvary in thickness from one-eighth to one- cessively improved by several individuals fourth of an inch, according to the age and since that time. It is, altogether, an ingesize of the turtle. The quantity of mer- nious and useful contrivance. The cutting chantable shell obtained from a single sub-part consists of two chisels, which are ject of the usual size, is about eight pounds, made to act on the plate alternately, and which, at the usual price, is worth sixty || in a perpendicular direction, each chisel or seventy dollars. 7. The process of making combs from the horns of cattle, is not difficult to be understood. The tips and buts are first cut off with a saw, and the remaining portion is also divided longitudinally on one side with the same instrument. The horns are then soaked for the space of several days, and afterwards boiled in oil, to render them pliable: they are next spread out and pressed between hot iron plates. This operation clarifies the horn, and produces a plate of proper thickness. cutting one side of two teeth, and severing one from the opposite back, at every stroke. It is impossible, however, to form a clear conception of the manner in which the machine operates, except by actual inspection. It performs the work with great. rapidity, since from one to two hundred dozens of combs can be cut in twelve hours; whereas, not one-fourth of that number can be twinned, in the old method, during the same time. 11. After the teeth have been rounded and in other respects brought to the proper form with suitable instruments, the combs are polished by rubbing them first with the dust of a peculiar kind of brick, then by applying them to a moving cylinder cover 8. After the plates thus produced have been cut to the sizes of the proposed combs, and when these have been shaved to a suitable thickness with instruments adapted to the purpose, the teeth are cuted with buff leather, charged with rotteneither with a twinning saw, as represented in the preceding cut, or with a twinning machine. 9. In the former case, the plate is fasten stone, ashes, or brick-dust; and finally, by rubbing them with the hand, charged with rotten-stone and vinegar. 12. The combs are next coloured, or stained; and, as the tortoise-shell is by far the best and most expensive material for this kind of comb, the great object of the manufacturer is to produce colours as nearly resembling those of the real shell as practicable. This is done in considerable perfection, in the following manner: 13. The combs are first dipped in aquafortis, and then covered with a paste made of lime, pearl-ash, and red lead. To produce the requisite variety of shades, both taste and judgment are necessary in applying the composition, and in determining the time which it should remain upon the combs. To give the combs a still stronger resemblance to shell, they are also immersed for fifteen or twenty minutes in a dye of nicaragua. 14. The combs having been covered with oil, they are next heated upon iron plates, and brought to the desired shape by bending them upon wooden blocks with a woollen list. The whole process is finished by rubbing off the oil with a silk handkerchief. 15. The general process of making shell combs differs but little from that which has been just described, varying only in a few particulars, in compliance with the peculiar nature of the material. method, two pieces of horn can also be joined together. 17. Both horn and shell combs are often stamped with figures, and otherwise ornamented with carved work. In the latter || case, the ornaments are produced, by removing a part of the material with a saw and graver. The saw employed is not more than the twelfth of an inch in width, and being fastened to a frame, is moved up and down, with great rapidity, by means of the foot, while the part of the comb to be cut away is applied to the teeth. The operator is guided in the work by a pattern, which has been struck on paper from an engraved plate. 18. Combs for dressing and cleansing the hair, are made of horn, shell, bone, ivory, and wood; but it is unnecessary to be particular in describing the manner in which every kind of comb is manufactured: we will only add, the teeth of fine ivory and bone combs are cut with a buzz, or circular saw, which, fastened to a mandrel, is moved in a lathe. THE BRUSH-MAKER. 1. There are few manufactured articles in more general use, than brushes. This has arisen from their great utility, and the low prices at which they can be pur maker's labour are denominated variously, according to the purposes to which they are to be applied. 16. On account of the great value of shell, the workmen are careful to make the most of every portion of it: accord-chased. The productions of the brushingly, when a piece falls short of the desired size, it is enlarged by welding to it another of smaller dimensions. The union is effected, by lapping the two pieces upon each other, and then pressing them together between two plates of hot iron: the heat of the iron is prevented from injuring the shell, by the interposition of a wet linen cloth, and by immersing the whole in hot water. In a similar manner, broken combs are often mended; and by the same 2. The operations connected with this business are very simple, as there is scarcely a tool employed which is not familiar to every other class of mechanics. The brushmaker, however, does not manufacture every part of the brush. He procures his wooden stocks and handles from various sources, but chiefly from the turner; and |