being able to get the sun, the master comes up on deck with his quadrant or sextant, and the chief mate also usually takes his. The second mate does not, except upon a Sunday, or when there is no work going forward. As soon as the sun crosses the meridian, eight strokes are struck on the bell, and a new sea day begins. The reckoning is then corrected by the observation under the master's superintendence.

The master also takes the lunar observations, usually with the assistance of both his officers; in which case the master takes the angle of the moon with the star or sun, the chief mate takes the altitude of the sun or star, and the second mate the altitude of the moon.

In regulating the hours of duty and sleep, the meal times, the food, &c., the master has absolute power; yet the customs are very nearly the same in all vessels. The hour of breakfast is seven bells in the morning (half after seven), dinner at noon, and supper whenever the day's work is over. If the voyage is a long one, the crew are usually put upon an allowance of bread, beef, and water. The dispensing of the stores, and regulating the allowance, lies, of course, with the master, though the duty of opening the casks, weighing, measuring, &c., falls upon the second mate. The chief mate enters in the log-book every barrel or cask of provisions that is broached. The steward takes charge of all the provisions for the use of the cabin, and keeps them in the pantry, over which he has the direct control. The average of allowance in merchant vessels is six pounds of bread a-week; and three quarts of water, and one pound and a half of beef, or one and a quarter of pork, a-day, to each man. The entire control of the navigation and working of the

*

* One essential feature of the Merchant Shipping Act relates to the provisions to be served out to the crews of British ships during the voyage. There is no fixed scale, because the articles of diet will vary in different climates; but it is required that the quantity of each article of daily consumption shall be set forth in the agreement; and, for the purpose of counteracting the effects of salt provisions, a certain quantity of lime juice or citric acid and sugar is to be served out whenever the use of salt meat has been continued beyond ten days.

In the coasting trade, the general rule is to insert a condition in the agreement that there shall be no stint, but avoidance of waste.-J. H. B.

THE MASTER.

ship lies with the master. He gives the course and general directions to the officer of the watch, who enters upon a slate, at the end of the watch, the course made, and the number of knots, together with any other observations. The officer of the watch is at liberty to trim the yards, to make alterations in the upper sails, to take in and set royals, topgallant sails, &c. ; but no important alteration can be made, as, for instance, reefing a topsail, without the special order of the master; who, in such cases, always comes upon deck and takes command in person. When on deck, the weather side of the quarter-deck belongs to him; and, as soon as he appears, the officer of the watch will always leave it, and go over to leeward, or forward into the waist. If the alteration to be made is slight, the master usually tells the officer to take in or set such a sail, and leaves to him

The following scheme shows the proportion of provisions for each man in the British Navy for 28 days, when not on fresh meat victualling :

the particular ordering as to the braces, sheets, &c., and the seeing all things put in their place. The principal manœuvres of the vessels, as tacking, wearing, reefing topsails, getting under way, and coming to anchor, require all hands. In these cases the master takes command and gives his orders in person, standing upon the quarter-deck; the chief mate superintends the forward part of the vessel, under the master; and the second mate assists in the waist. The master never goes aloft, nor does any work with his hands, unless for his own pleasure. If the officer of the watch thinks it necessary to reef the topsails, he calls the master, who upon coming on deck takes command; and, if he thinks proper, orders all hands to be called. The crew, officers, and all, then take their stations, and await the orders of the master, who works the ship in person, giving all the commands, even the most minute, and looks out for trimming the yards, and laying the ship for reefing. The chief mate commands upon the forecastle, under the master, and does not go aloft. The second mate goes aloft with the crew.

In tacking and wearing the master gives all the orders as to trimming the yards, &c., though the chief mate is expected to look out for the head yards. So, in getting under way, and in coming to anchor, the master takes the entire personal control of everything, the officers acting under him in their several stations.

In the ordinary day's work, however, which is carried on in a vessel, the state of things is somewhat different. This the master does not superintend personally; but gives general instructions to the chief mate, whose duty it is to see to their execution. To understand this distinction, the reader will bear in mind that there are two great divisions of duty and labour on shipboard. One, the working and navigating of the vessel; that is, the keeping and ascertaining the ship's position and directing her course, and making and taking in sail, trimming the sails to the wind, and the various nautical manœuvres and evolutions of a vessel. The other branch is, the work done upon the hull and rigging to keep it in order, such as the making and fitting of the new rigging, repairing of old, &c.; all which, together with making of small stuffs to be used on board, constitute the day's work and jobs of

the crew. As to the latter, the master usually converses with the chief mate upon the state of the vessel and rigging, and tells him, more or less particularly, what he wishes to have done. It then becomes the duty of this officer to see the thing accomplished. If, for instance, the master tells the chief mate to stay the topmasts more forward, the chief mate goes upon the forecastle, sets the men to work, one upon one thing and another upon another, sees that the stays and backstays are come up with, has tackles got upon the rigging, sights the mast, &c. If the master sees anything which he disapproves of, and has any preferences in the modes of doing the work, he should call the officer aft and speak to him; and, if instead of this he were to go forward and give orders to the men, it would be considered an interference, and indeed an insult to the officer.* So with any other work doing upon the ship or rigging; as, rattling down, turning in and setting up rigging, bending and unbending sails, and all the knotting, splicing, serving, &c., and the making of small stuffs, which constitute the day's work and jobs of a vessel. If the chief officer is a competent man, the master is not expected to trouble himself with the details of any of these things; and, indeed, if he were to do so to a great extent, it would probably lead to difficulty.

Where there are passengers, as in regular line of packet ships (or, as they are familiarly called, liners), between New York and Liverpool or Havre, for instance, the master has even less to do with the day's work; since the navigation and working of the ship with proper attention to his passengers, are as much as can reasonably be required of him.

The master has the entire control of the cabin. The mates usually live in a state-room by themselves; or, if they live in the cabin, they yet feel that the master is the head of the house, and are unwilling to interfere with his hours and occupations. The chief mate dines with the master; and the second mate looks out for the ship while they are below, and dines at the second table. In the liners, however, the

*This is not sufficiently attended to in British merchant ships. The master should consider that a contrary course lessens the authority of his chief officer over the crew, and eventually his own.

mates dine together; and the master looks out for the ship while they are at dinner, and dines with his passengers at a later hour.

As the master stands no watch, he comes and goes as he pleases, and takes his own hours for rest. In fine weather, he is not necessarily much on deck; but should be ready at all times, especially in bad weather, to be up at a moment's notice.

Everything of importance that occurs, as the seeing a sail, or land, or the like, must be immediately reported to the master. And in heaving-to for speaking, the master takes the entire charge of working the vessel, and speaks the other vessel in person.

As will be found in the Third Part of this book, the master has the entire control of the discipline of the ship, and no subordinate officer has authority to punish a seaman, or to use force, without the master's order, except in cases of necessity not admitting of delay. He has also the complete direction of the internal arrangements and economy of the vessel; and upon his character, and upon the course of conduct he pursues, depend in a great measure the character of the ship, and the conduct of both officers and men. He has a power and an influence, both direct and indirect, which may be the means of much good or much evil. If he is profane, passionate, tyrannical, indecent, or intemperate, more or less of the same qualities will spread themselves or break out among officers and men; which, perhaps, would have been checked if not in some degree removed, had the head of the ship been a man of high personal character. He may make his ship almost anything he chooses, and may render the lives and duties of his officers and men pleasant and profitable to them, or may introduce disagreements, discontent, tyranny, resistance, and, in fact, make the situation of all on board as uncomfortable as that in which any human beings can well be placed. Every master of a vessel who will lay this to heart, and consider his great responsibility, may not only be a benefactor to the numbers whom the course of many years will bring under his command, but may render a service to the whole class, and do much to raise the character of the calling.