multiplied by the velocity of the piston, six feet per minute, and the product divided by 32,000, the result is the number of horse's power. The advantage of steam power is apparent; the horse can work at that rate only eight hours; the engine may be kept at work as long as wanted.

WINNOWING MACHINES.

These very useful machines were a Chinese invention, brought to Europe by the Dutch, and first made in Scotland by Rodgers, near Hawick, in 1733, from whence they were soon after brought into Northumberland, where they were first used in England.

SPINNING JENNIES.

The Spinning Jenny, to which this country owes so much of its commercial greatness, was originally invented by Hargreaves in 1767, but ultimately improved by Richard Arkwright, a barber, but who afterwards became an eminent manufacturer, and ultimately Sir Richard Arkwright, Bart.

The term Jenny, was derived from his wife, whose name was Jane, but whom he used to address by the familiar name of Jenny; thinking, no doubt, as the latter had been very prolific (which was the case), that his new invention would be equally so, under a similar appellation. The result justified such a conclusion.

AIR BALLOONS.

As balloon ascensions seem quite the rage, it may not be amiss to state, that Mr. Lunardi accompanied by a cat, a dog, and a pigeon, ascended in one from the Artillery Ground, Moorfields (the first attempt of the kind in England), September 15, 1784. For some account of the recent improvements in aerial machines, see the Reports of the Juries of the Great Exhibition, p. 309.

LANTHORNS

Were first used in England by king Alfred, in 890, as is noticed in Asser's Life of Alfred. See also John xviii. 3.

DIORAMA, PANORAMA, &c.

Diorama is from the Greek, and means to "see through," and is a mode of painting and scenic exhibition of recent invention by two French artists, Daguerre and Bouton. It possesses some advantages over the Panorama, in being equally suitable for architectural and interior views as for landscape. The Panorama is neither more nor less than a large picture, the Diorama is a transparency, and the Cosmorama and Poecilorama

a couple of galanta shows for grown up ladies and gentlemen. The Diorama in the Regent's Park, London, was first opened in 1823, and was erected after the plans of Messrs. Morgan and Pugin. The Diorama at Berlin, executed by Carl Gropius, an eminent scene painter, is somewhat on the same plan.

KALEIDOSCOPE.

This ever-varying optical instrument derives its name from καλος beautiful, ειδος a form, and σκοπεω to see. The novelty was so enchanting, that opticians could not manufacture kaleidoscopes fast enough to meet the universal desire for seeing the delightful and ever-varying combinations presented by each turn of the magical cylinder. It was invented by Dr. Brewster, to whom, had its exclusive formation been ensured, it must have produced a handsome fortune in a single year. Unhappily, that gentleman was deprived of his just reward by fraudful anticipation.

WATER CARRIAGE.

Floats, or rafts, are believed by most authors to have been the first kind of water carriage. To these succeeded canoes, made of one large tree excavated, to secure its freight from being wetted or washed away.

"Then first on seas the hollow alder swam."

As uncultivated natives wanted proper tools for sawing large trees into planks, the most ancient vessels or boats in several countries were made of osiers, and the flexible branches of trees interwoven as close as possible, and covered with skins. The sea which flows between Britain and Ireland, says Cæsar, is so unquiet and stormy, that it is only navigable in summer, when the people of these countries pass and repass it in small boats made of wattles, and covered carefully with the hides of oxen.

SHIPS OF WAR.

The art of ship-building was first invented by the Egyptians; the first ship (probably a galley) being brought from Egypt by Darius, 1485 B.C. The first ship of 800 tons was built in England, 1509. The first double-decked one built in England was of 1000 tons burthen, by order of Henry VII.: she had three masts, carried 80 guns, measured 138 feet in length and 36 in breadth; it cost £14,000, and was called the Great Harry. Down to the year 1545, the "Great Harry" was the only ship of that description in the British Fleet. She was accidentally burnt at Woolwich in her sixty-fifth year; before this, 24 gun-ships were the largest in our navy. Port-holes, and other improvements, were first

F

invented by Descharges, a French builder at Brest, in the reign of Louis XII., 1500.

BASKETS.

Baskets were first made by the ancient Britons, who exported vast quantities of them. Julius Cæsar particularly alludes to them in his Commentaries.

MARINER'S COMPASS.

The Mariner's Compass was invented by Flavio Gioia, or Goya, a Neapolitan, and from which period we may date the general intercourse among nations. It was discovered early in the fourteenth century.

FLEUR-DE-LIS ON THE MARINER'S COMPASS.

Those who have seen the mariner's compass, or indeed a drawing of it, must have observed the fleur-de-hs at the point of the needle. From this circumstance the French have laid claim to the discovery; but it is much more probable that the figure is an ornamental cross, which originated in the devotion of an ignorant and superstitious age to the mere symbol.

BRIDGES.

Bridges were originally called Bows. Stow says, at Stratford by Bow is a bridge, the first that was built of stone in England. It was built by orders of queen Matilda, relict of Henry I., over the river Lea, and called Stratford Bow from its arch, which was a piece of architecture then probably new to the British nation. It was built in 1087. It is related that queen Matilda, being closely pursued by her enemies, forded the river Lea below Old Ford, on which occasion, the waters being much out, some of her favourite attendants were drowned, and which afflicted her so much, that afterwards she caused the bridge above alluded to, to be built over the said place. The oldest bridge now existing in England, is the triangular bridge at Croyland in Lincolnshire, which is said to have been erected about A. D. 860. The oldest suspension bridge is believed to have been the Winch Chain Bridge, suspended over the Tees, supposed to have been erected about 1741.

CANALS.

The first canal in England, with locks and sluices, was made A.D. 1563, near the city of Exeter. The inyentor was John Trew of Glamorgan, In 1755, an act was passed for constructing one eleven miles long from the mouth of Sankey Brook, in the river

Mersey, to Gerard's Bridge and St. Helens. The aggregate length of the navigable canals of England exceeds 2,200 miles.

FISHING WITH NETS IN ENGLAND.

The means of supplying life with necessaries, was but imperfectly known and cultivated. The poor pagans of Sussex, though starving for want of food, knew not how to catch any fish except eels, until Bishop Wilfred (who in 678 took shelter in that district) instructed them in the use of nets. He took 300 at a draught, and thus, supplying the bodily wants of his catechumens, rendered their minds tractable to his doctrines, and easily accomplished their conversion.

GUNPOWDER.

Gunpowder was known in the Eastern world long before its discovery took place in Europe. It is a curious fact, that upon our discovery of China we found that nation possessed of gunpowder, a composition which could not have been made without à considerable knowledge of chemistry. It has been said that it was used in China as early as the year 85, and that the knowledge of it was conveyed to us from the Arabs, on the return of the Crusaders to Europe; that the Arabs made use of it at the siege of Mecca in 690; and that they derived it from the Indians. The discovery of the manufacture of this death-dealing combustible in Europe, is by some attributed to Berthold Schwartz, a German chemist and monk, who, happening to triturate some sulphur, nitre, and charcoal, in a mortar, was surprised and alarmed at an unexpected explosion, which blew off the head of his mortar to a considerable distance. The probability however is, that this was a second discovery of the same thing, for the first intimation that was given of it was considerably before, by that great philosopher, Roger Bacon, in his posthumous treatise, entitled, De Nulliate Magic, published in 1316. "You may," says he, "raise thunder and lightning at pleasure, by only taking sulphur, nitre, and charcoal, which singly have no effect, but mixed together, and confined in a close place, cause a noise and explosion greater than a clap of thunder."

Gunpowder was first made use of in warfare, in Europe, by the English at the battle of Cressy, in the year 1345, when, for the first time, three pieces of field ordnance, or cannon,* were first used. It was afterwards used by the Venetians at the siege of Genoa, and from that period was adopted by every power in Europe. It consists of a very intimate mixture of nitre, or nitrate of potash, charcoal, and sulphur: the proportions are 75 nitre, 15 charcoal, and 10 sulphur.

*The first cannons were made of trees bored, and bound with iron hoops, Stone balls were used till the reign of Henry VIII.

Before the introduction of gunpowder, however, an highly inflammable compound called Greek fire was in use; and this, having the property of burning under water, could not easily be extinguished; consequently, it did surprising execution. In the 12th century, the emperors of Constantinople used to send quantities of this dreadful combustible to princes in friendship with them, as the most valuable present they could give them, and the greatest mark of their favour. It was considered so important an article of offence, that the use of it was continued long after the introduction of gunpowder.

CANNONS.

Cannons were first used at the battle of Cressy, in the year 1345; they were, however, of a small kind. Great guns were first used in England at the siege of Berwick, in 1405. Muskets were not invented till the year 1521. Cannons were first made of wood, bound with iron. The earliest cannon-balls were of stone. Brass cannons first cast in England by John Owen, 1535. Iron cannons first cast, 1543, in Sussex.

BOMBS.

Bombs were first invented in 1388, by a man at Venlo. Some attribute them to Galen, bishop of Munster. They were first thrown upon the town of Watchtendonck, in Guelderland, in the year 1580.

CHAIN SHOT.

This destructive missile was invented by De Wit in the year 1666, and was first used by the Dutch on the 1st of June the same year, when the Dutch fleet engaged the Duke of Albemarle's squadron in the Downs; it was a drawn battle.

CONGREVE ROCKETS.

The death-dealing rockets thus denominated, receive their name from General Sir W. Congreve, the inventor of them.

GUILLOTINE.

The guillotine takes its name from one Dr. Guillotin, who first introduced it into France, where it was adopted as an instrument for inflicting capital punishment by a Decree of the 20th of March, 1792. It is an instrument for beheading, constructed on the same principle as the guillotine that was anciently used in Scotland, and was called a MAIDEN; it was introduced by the Regent, James Earl of Morton, who, it seems, had met with it in his travels, and who, by a singular coincidence, was the first person whose head it severed.