ADVERSITY, a state which is opposite to our wishes, and the cause of sorrow. It stands opposed to prosperity. See AFFLICTION. ADVOCATE, one who pleads or defends the cause of another, or interposes on his behalf with a judge. It is used,

1. Of our Saviour, and never of any created being in its biblical sense. 1 John I. 1.

words, a right of nominating a person to officiate in a vacant church. The name is derived from advocatio, because the right was first obtained by such as were founders, benefactors, or strenuous defenders (advocates) of the church. Those who have this right are styled patrons. Advowsons are of three kinds,-presentative, collative, and donative :— presentative when the patron presents his clerk to the bishop of the diocese to be instituted; collative when the bishop is the patron, and institutes or collates his clerk by a single act; and donative when a church is founded by the king, and assigned to the patron without being subject to the ordinary, so that the patron confers the benefice on his clerk without presentation, institution, or induction.

2. Of a species of officers appointed to defend the rights and revenues of a church or religious house. They were first appointed under the consulship of Stilico, and were divided according to their several offices into defensores, causidici, actores, pastores laici, &c. These offices were first entrusted to canons, but afterwards were held even by monarchs. The advocates set over single EONS, (Aiwveç,) ages. The Valentinians, churches administered justice in secular af- followers of the Gnostics, (who had corrupted fairs in the name of the bishops and abbots, the simplicity of the Christian doctrine, by and had jurisdiction over their whole dio- mixing with it the fancies and conceits of the ceses. In case of necessity they defended the Jewish Cabbalists, of the schools of Pythaproperty of the clergy by force of arms. In goras and Plato, and of the Chaldean Philothe courts of justice they pleaded the cause sophy, more ancient than either,) invented a of the churches with which they were con- kind of theogony or genealogy of gods, (not nected. They superintended the collection unlike that of Hesiod,) whom they called by of the tithes and other revenues of the church, several glorious names, and all by the general and enjoyed, on the part of the convents, appellation of ONS; among which they recmany benefices and considerable revenues. koned Zon, Life, Aóyog, Word, Movoyévns, After a time, these advocates and their assist- Only-begotten, Anoopa, Fulness; and many ants becoming a burthen to the clergy, and other divine powers and emanations, amountthe people under their charge, who beganing in number to thirty, which they fancied to suffer severely from their avarice, the churches began to get rid of them. Urban III. laboured to deliver the church from these oppressors, but found, in 1186, the German prelates, in connexion with the Emperor Frederic L, opposed to it. Under the Emperor Frederic II, however, most of the German churches succeeded in abolishing these offices by the grant of large sums of money and of various immunities.

3. Of the advowee, or patron, who has the right of presentation to a living in his own name. Females having the same right were called advocatissa.

to be successively derived from one another, and all from one self-originated deity, named Bythus, i. e. profound, or unfathomable'; whom they called likewise the most high and ineffable Father. See VALENTINIANS.

ÆRA, a fixed point of time, from which chronologers reckon. Eras are either Christian. Jewish, Heathen, or Mohammedan. Christian æras are deduced either from the birth of Christ, from the emperor Dioclesian, or the beginning of the world. Chronologers differ as to the true point of time in which Christ was born: some place it two years, others four, and some five, before the vulgar ADVOCATE, DEVIL'S, the person appointed æra, which by general consent is placed in at Rome to raise doubts against the genuine- the year of the world 4000,-of the Julian ness of the miracles of a candidate for canoni-period, 4714. This æra is that in general use zation, to expose any want of formality in among the Christians. the investigation of the miracles, and to assail the general merits of the candidate. After every thing is said pro and con, and three papal advocates of the consistory have found the whole course of proceeding legal and formal, the canonization follows. It is said that in the beginning of the seventeenth century the canonization of Cardinal Boromeo was almost prevented by the accusations of the devil's advocate.

ADVOWEE, a term employed to denote the ecclesiastical orders of advocates, and the patrons of churches, &c.

ADVOWSON, in English law, a right of presentation to a vacant benefice, or, in other

The ancient Jews made use of several æras in their computations: sometimes they reckoned from the deluge, sometimes from the division of tongues, sometimes from their departure out of Egypt, at other times from the building of the temple, and sometimes from their restoration after the Babylonish captivity; but their vulgar æra was from the creation of the world, which falls in with the year of the Julian Period 953; and consequently they supposed the world created 249 years sooner than according to our computations. when the Jews became subject to the SyroMacedonian kings, they were obliged to make use of the Era of the Seleucidæ in all their

But

AFFECTION, in a philosophical sense, refers to the manner in which we are affected by any thing for a continuance, whether painful or pleasant; but in the most common sense, Now, in order to ascertain whether our it may be defined to be a settled bent of mind affections are excited in a spiritual manner, towards a particular being or thing. It holds we must inquire whether that which moves a middle place between disposition on the one our affections be truly spiritual; whether our hand, and passion on the other. It is distin- consciences be alarmed, and our hearts imguishable from disposition, which being a pressed; whether the judgment be enlightenbranch of one's nature originally, must existed, and we have a perception of the moral before there can be any opportunity to exert it upon any particular object; whereas affection can never be original, because, having a special relation to a particular object, it cannot exist till the object have once, at least, been presented. It is also distinguishable from passion, which, depending on the real or ideal presence of its object, vanishes with its object; whereas affection is a lasting con

and Abuse of the Passions; M Laurins | committed in them became so notorious, that Essays, sec. 5 and 6, where this subject is masterly handled; Jeremy Taylor's Works, vol. ii. pp. 114, 164.

AFFINITY, SPIRITUAL, in the church of Rome, a relation contracted by the sacraments of Baptism and Confirmation, according to which a god-father may not marry his god-daughter without a dispensation.

AFFIRMATION, the solemn declaration of Quakers, and the members of some other sects, in confirmation of their testimony in courts of law, or of their statements on other occasions, on which the sanction of an oath is required of other persons. The English laws did not permit affirmations instead of oaths, in criminal cases, until 1828. In the United States, no difference has been made between civil and criminal cases in this respect, it being permitted both to Quakers and other scrupulous persons to give testimony on mere solemn affirmation. The same privilege is extended in Prussia to certain sects whose principles do not allow them to make oath.

the holding them (in churches at least) was solemnly condemned at the council of Carthage in the year 397. Attempts have been made, of late years, to revive these feasts, but in a different manner from the primitive custom, and, perhaps, with little edification. They are, however, not very general, being confined almost entirely to the Sandemanians and some of the stricter Antipædobaptists.

AGAPETE, a name given to certain virgins and widows who, in the ancient church, associated themselves with, and attended on, ecclesiastics, out of a motive of piety and charity. See DEACONESSES.

AGEDA, SYNOD OF, an assembly of Jewish doctors, held A. D. 1650, and so denominated from a plain on which they met, about thirty leagues from Buda, in Hungary. More than 300 Rabbins, and many other Jews, of different nations, attended. The object was to debate the question-Whether the Messiah had appeared. The negative of the question was carried, and it was agreed that his coming was delayed on account of their sins and impenitence. They were of opinion that he would be born of a virgin, come as a great conqueror, deliver the Jews from every foreign yoke, and alter nothing in the Mosaic religion. Some ecclesiastics from Rome attended this meeting, but the Jews would not hear them.

AGENDA, among divines and philosophers, signifies the duties which a man lies under an obligation to perform: thus we meet with the agenda of a Christian, or the duties he ought to perform, in opposition to the credenda, or things he is to believe. It is also applied to the service or office of the church, and to church books compiled by public authority, prescribing the order to be observed, and amounts to the same as ritual, formulary,

AGENT, that which acts: opposed to patient, or that which is acted upon.

AGAPE, or LOVE FEASTS,. (from ȧyarn, * love.") feasts of charity among the ancient Christians, when liberal contributions were made by the rich to the poor. It has been supposed by many that the custom is sanctioned by 1 Cor. xi. 20, 21; but the following verse clearly shows that the apostle reprobates the idea of the Corinthian Christians eating any other social meal in public but that of the Lord's Supper. Chrysostom gives the following account of this feast, which he derives from the apostolic practice. He says, -The first Christians had all things in common, as we read in the Acts of the Aposties; but when that equality of possessions ceased, as it did even in the apostles' time, the Agape or love feast was substituted in the room of it. Upon certain days, after par-directory, missal, &c. taking of the Lord's Supper, they met at a common feast, the rich bringing provisions, and the poor, who had nothing, being invited." It was always attended with receiving the holy sacrament; but there is some difference between the ancient and modern interpreters as to the circumstance of time, viz, whether this feast was held before or after the communion. Chrysostom is of the latter opinion; the learned Dr. Cave of the former. These love feasts, during the first three centuries, were held in the church without scandal or offence; but in after-times the heathens began to tax them with impurity. This gave occasion to a reformation of these Agapes. The kiss of charity, with which the ceremony used to end, was no longer given between different sexes; and it was expressly forbidden to have any beds or couches for the conveniency of those who should be disposed to eat more at their ease. Notwithstanding these precautions, the abuses

AGENT, MORAL. See MORAL AGENT. AGNOETE, (from ȧyvoew, "to be ignorant of,") a sect, the followers of Meophronius, of Cappadocia, which appeared about 370. They called in question the omniscience of God, alleging that he knew things past only by memory, and things future only by an uncertain prescience. There arose another sect of the same name in the sixth century, who followed Themistius, deacon of Alexandria. They maintained that Christ was ignorant of certain things, and particularly of the time of the day of judgment. It is supposed they built their hypothesis on that passage in Mark xiii. 32, " Of that day and that hour knoweth no man; no, not the angels which are in heaven, neither the Son, but the Father." The meaning of which most probably is, that this was not known to the Messiah himself in his human nature, or by virtue of

his unction, as any part of the mysteries he was to reveal; for, considering him as God, he could not be ignorant of any thing.

AGNUS DEI, in the Church of Rome, a cake of wax, stamped with the figure of a lamb supporting the banner of the cross, with the year and name of the pope. The name literally signifies "Lamb of God." These cakes, being consecrated by the pope with great solemnity, and distributed among the people, are supposed to have great virtues. They cover them with a piece of stuff, cut in the form of a heart, and carry them very devoutly in their processions. The Romish priests and religious derive considerable pecuniary advantage from selling them to some, and presenting them to others.

Agnus Dei is also used as a prayer in the Romish Liturgy, which begins with the words, and is generally sung before the communion. According to the regulation of Pope Sergius I., in 688, it was also sung at the close of the

mass.

AGONISTICI, a name given by Donatus to such of his disciples as he sent to fairs, markets, and other public places, to propagate his doctrine. They were called Agonistici, from the Greek άγων, "combat," because they were sent, as it were, to fight and subdue the people to their opinions. See DONATIST.

AGONYCLITE, a sect of Christians in the seventh century, who prayed always standing, as thinking it unlawful to kneel.

darkness, and whose influence was experienced in all the ills of life.

AINSWORTH, HENRY, a celebrated nonconformist divine of the 16th and 17th centuries, but both the time and place of his birth are unknown.

In the year 1590, he greatly distinguished himself among the sect called Brownists; and in early life gained very great reputation by his knowledge of the learned languages, and particularly of Hebrew. The Brownists having fallen into great discredit in England, Ainsworth was involved in their difficulties and troubles; and at length he was compelled to quit his native land, and retire into Holland. In conjunction with Johnson, he erected a church at Amsterdam, and published a Confession of Faith of the Brownists, in the year 1602, which caused much contention, and a division between him and Mr. Johnson was the result; the latter removing to Embden with half the congregation, and Ainsworth remaining at Amsterdam; but Johnson soon after died, and his congregation was dissolved. Ainsworth also left his people for a short time, and went to Ireland, but returned to Amsterdam, and continued there till the time of his death. Nothing could persuade him, however, to return home; and he died, as he lived, in exile. This circumstance was at that time very prejudicial to the Protestant cause in general, and especially to the Puritans; and it has ever been a matter of regret, that this great and able man was prevented from the public exercise of his ministry in his native country. Very few authors are more quoted than Ainsworth by the literati of all countries; and not only at a considerable distance of time, but by all sects and parties. To his works the celebrated Bishop Hall paid much attention.

Ainsworth was a man of profound learning, well versed in the Scriptures, and deeply read in the works of the Rabbins. He published several treatises, many of which excited great interest, particularly that entitled "A counter Poison against Bernard and Crashaw." Ainsworth is, however, most celebrated for his

AGRICOLA, JOHN, the son of a tailor at Eisleben, was born in 1492. He was one of the most active among the theologians who propagated the doctrines of Luther. He studied at Wittemberg and Leipsic, was afterwards rector and preacher in his native city, and, in 1526, chaplain to the Elector John of Saxony. He subsequently was made chaplain to Count Albert of Mansfeldt, and took a part in the delivery of the Augsburg Confession, and the signing of the articles of Smalcald. When professor at Wittemberg, whither he went in 1537, he stirred up the Antinomian Controversy with Luther and Melancthon. After a life of disputation, he died at Berlin, in 1566. Besides his theolo-"Annotations on several Books of the Bible." gical works, he published one, the object of which was to explain the common German proverbs. Its patriotic spirit, strict morality, and pithy style, place it among the first prose German compositions of the time, at the side of Luther's translation of the Bible. In conjunction with Julius Pflug and Michael Heldingus, he composed the famous INTERIM, which see.

AGYNIANI, a sect which appeared before 694. They condemned all use of flesh and marriage as not instituted by God, but introduced at the instigation of the devil.

AHRIMAN, according to the system of the ancient magi, one of the two original principles, the cause of all evil, whose symbol was

These were printed at various times and in different sizes. In those on the Five Books of Moses, Psalms, and the Canticles, the Hebrew words are compared with and explained by the ancient Greek and Chaldee versions, and other records and monuments of the Hebrews.

Mr. Ainsworth's death was sudden; and suspicion of his having been poisoned was raised by his having found a diamond of great value, belonging to a Jew, and his refusing to return it to him till he had conferred with some of his Rabbins on the prophecies of the Old Testament, relating to the Messiah, which was promised; but the Jew not having sufficient interest to obtain one, it is thought

Mr. | divers heresies, particularly Manicheism, from which the Waldenses were exempt. See WALDENSES.