senius (bishop of Ypres, and doctor of divinity of the universities of Louvain and Douay) in relation to grace and predestination.

In the year 1640, the two universities just mentioned, and particularly Father Molina and Father Leonard Celsus, thought fit to condemn the opinions of the Jesuits on grace and free-will. This having set the controversy on foot, Jansenius opposed to the doctrine of the Jesuits the sentiments of St. Augustine, and wrote a treatise on grace which he entitled " Augustinus." This treatise was attacked by the Jesuits, who accused Jansenius of maintaiming dangerous and heretical opinions; and afterwards, in 1642, obtained of Pope Urban VIII. a formal condemnation of the treatise written by Jansenius; when the partisans of Jansenius gave out that this bull was spurious, and composed by a person entirely devoted to the Jesuits. After the death of Urban VIII., the affair of Jansenism began to be more warmly controverted, and gave birth to a great number of polemical writings concerning grace; and what occasioned some mirth, were the titles which each party gave to their writings: one writer published the "Torch of St. Augustine;" another found "Snuffers of St. Augustine's Torch;" and Father Vernon formed A Gag for the Jansenists," &c. In the year 1650, sixty-eight bishops of France subscribed a letter to Pope Innocent X., to obtain an inquiry into and condemnation of the five following propositions, extracted from Jansenius' Augustinus:" 1. Some of God's commandments are impossible to be observed by the righteous, even though they endeavour with all their power to accomplish them.2. In the state of corrupted nature, we are incapable of resisting inward grace.-3. Merit and demerit, in a state of corrupted nature, do not depend on a liberty which excludes necessity, but on a liberty which excludes constraint.-4. The Semi-Pelagians admitted the necessity of an inward preventing grace for the performance of each particular act, even for the beginning of faith; but they were heretics in maintaining that this grace was of such a nature that the will of man was able either to resist or obey it.-5. It is Semi-Pelagianism to say, that Jesus Christ died or shed his blood, for all mankind in general. In the year 1652, the pope appointed a congregation for examining into the dispute relative to grace. In this congregation Jansenius was condemned; and the bull of condemnation published in May, 1653, filled all the pulpits in Paris with violent outcries and alarins against the Jansenists. In the year 1656, Pope Alexander VII. issued out another bull, in which he condemned the five propositions of Jansenius. However, the Jansenists affirmed that these propositions were not to be found in this book; but that some of his enemies having caused them to

| be printed on a sheet, inserted them in the book, and thereby deceived the pope. At last Clement XI. put an end to the dispute by his constitution of July 17, 1705, in which, after having recited the constitutions of his predecessors in relation to this affair, he declared, "That, in order to pay a proper obedience to the papai constitutions concerning the present question, it is necessary to receive them with a respectful silence." The clergy of Paris, the same year, approved and accepted this bull, and none dared to oppose it. This is the famous bull Unigenitus, so called from its beginning with the words Unigenitus Dei Filius, &c., which has occasioned so much confusion in France.

It was not only on account of their embracing the doctrines of Augustine, that the Jesuits were so imbittered against them but that which offended the Jesuits, and the other creatures of the Roman pontiff, was their strict piety, and severe moral discipline. The Jansenists cried out against the corruptions of the Church of Rome, and complained that neither its doctrines nor morals retained any traces of their former purity They reproached the clergy with an universal depravation of sentiments and manners, and an entire forgetfulness of the dignity of their character and the duties of their vocation; they censured the licentiousness of the monastic orders, and insisted upon the necessity of reforming their discipline according to the rules of sanctity, abstinence, and selfdenial, that were originally prescribed by their respective founders. They maintained, also, that the people ought to be carefully instructed in all the doctrines and precepts of Christianity; and that, for this purpose, the Holy Scriptures and public liturgies should be offered to their perusal in their mother tongue; and, finally, they looked upon it as a matter of the highest moment to persuade all Christians that true piety did not consist in the observance of pompous rites, or in the performance of external acts of devotion, but in inward holiness and divine love.

Notwithstanding the above-mentioned sentiments, the Jansenists have been accused of superstition and fanaticism; and, on account of their severe discipline and practice, have been denominated Rigorists. It is said that they made repentance consist chiefly in those voluntary sufferings which the transgressor inflicted upon himself, in proportion to the nature of his crimes and the degree of his guilt. They tortured and macerated their bodies by painful labour, excessive abstinence, continual prayer, and contemplation; nay, they carried these austerities, it is said, to so high a pitch, as to place merit in them, and to consider those as the sacred victims of repentance who had gradually put an end to their days by their excessive abstinence and labour. Dr. Haweis, however, in his Church History (vol. iii. p. 46),

seems to form a more favourable opinion of
them.
"I do not," says he, "readily receive
the accusations that Papists or Protestants
have objected to them, as over-rigorous and
fanatic in their devotion; but I will admit
many things might be blameable: a tincture
of popery might drive them to push monkish
austerities too far, and secretly to place some
merit in mortification, which they in general
disclaimed; yet, with all that can be said,
surely the root of the matter was in them.
When I read Jansenius, or his disciples Paseal
or Quesnel, I bow before such distinguished
excellences, and confess them my brethren;
shall I say, my fathers? Their principles are
pure and evangelical; their morals formed up-
on the apostles and prophets; and their zeal
to amend and convert, blessed with eminent
success."

JASHER, BOOK OF, a modern apocryphal work, intended to impose on the credulous and ignorant, to sap the credit of the books of Moses, and to blacken the character of Moses himself. It pretends to be a translation of the ancient record, mentioned Josh. x. 13, and 2 Sam. i. 18, but is one of the most clumsy and impudent forgeries that ever were attempted to be palmed on the public. It was first published by Jacob Ilive, a printer, in 1751, in 4to, who worked it off secretly by night, at a private press.

scription :- 1 am whatever is, was, and will be, and no mortal has ever raised my veil."

He

JEROME, one of the most learned and productive authors of the early Latin Church, was born about 331, in Dalmatia, of wealthy parents, educated with care in literary studies, and made familiar with the Roman and Greek classics, under the grammarian Donatus, at Rome. He did not escape the contaminating licentiousness of the capital, but had his feelings excited by the catacombs and tombs of the martyrs; and becoming inclined towards the Christian faith, he became acquainted with several of its preachers in Gaul, and on the Rhine, and was baptized before his fortieth year at Rome. Having formed a high idea of the ascetic life, he retired, in 374, into the deserts of Chalcis, where for four years he practised the severest mortifications, and applied himself to the most laborious studies. now obtained ordination as a presbyter of Antioch; went soon after to enjoy the instruction of Gregory Nazianzen at Constantinople; and at length proceeded to Rome, where his public exposition of the Scriptures procured him great favour, especially among the ladies, some of whom, matrons of rank in the fashionable world, together with their daughters, complied with his exhortations, and became nuns. Marcella and Paula are celebrated for the epistles which he wrote to them; and the latter accompanied him to Palestine in 386, where he founded a convent at Bethlehem, with her funds, and in her society, and where he died in 420. His biblical labours are highly valuable; his Latin version of the Old Testament from the original Hebrew is the foundation of the Vulgate, and his commentaries contain much useful matter. He was the only one of JEHOVAH, one of the Scripture names of the fathers who seems to have thoroughly God, and peculiar to him, signifying the Be- studied the Hebrew, which he did, with the ing who is self-existent, and gives existence assistance of learned rabbins in Palestine. He to others. The name is also given to Christ, engaged much in controversy, on which occaIs. xl. 3, and is a proof of his godhead, Matt. sions he frequently displayed great acerbity. iii. 3; Is. vi.; John xii. 41. The Jews had so He had neither the philosophical genius, nor great a veneration for this name, that they left the scriptural views of his celebrated contemnoff the custom of pronouncing it, and substi-porary Augustine; but he possessed a more tuted the word Adonai in its stead, whereby extensive knowledge of the languages, and a its true pronunciation was forgotten. They glowing and lively imagination, which gave believe that whoever knows the true pronun- attractions to his style, and rendered him the ciation of it cannot fail to be heard of God. most distinguished writer of his time.

JEALOUSY is that particular uneasiness which arises from the fear that some rival may rob us of the affection of one whom we greatly love, or suspicion that he has already done it. The first sort of jealousy is inseparable from love, before it is in possession of its object; the latter is unjust, generally mischievous, and always troublesome.

It is commonly called the Tetragrammaton (TETраYρаμμаTоv,) or name of four letters, ; and, containing in itself the past and future tenses, as well as the present participle, signifies He who WAS, IS, and SHALL BE, or the Eternal, Unchangeable, and Faithful. This incommunicable name seems to have been known among the Phoenicians, since Sanchoniathon is said to have received his accounts from a priest of the God Jevo; and to it doubtless is to be traced the Iao and Jove of the Greeks. The Egyptians also seem to have had some acquaintance with its meaning, for in the temple of Isis was the following in

JEROME OF PRAGUE, the celebrated layreformer, was born at Prague, about the year 1370. Very little is extant relative to the early part of his life; but he was very eager in the pursuit of knowledge, and spent his youth in the universities of Prague, Paris, Heidelburgh, Cologne, and Oxford. At the latter university he became acquainted with the works of Wickliffe; translated them into his native language; professed himself, on his return to Prague, to be an open favourer of him, and attached himself to the reformed in Bohemia, over whom Huss presided. Before the council of Constance, Jerome was cited on the

the members of the society, and appointed Loyola to be the first general of the order. The event fully justified Paul's discernment in expecting such beneficial consequences to the see of Rome from this institution. In less than half a century the society obtained establishments in every country that adhered to the Roman Catholic Church; its power and wealth increased amazingly; the number of its members became great; their character as well as accomplishments were still greater; and the Jesuits were celebrated by the friends and dreaded by the enemies of the Romish faith, as the most able and enterprising order in the church.

All the pilgrims are maintained for a month | consequence. Paul, instantly perceiving this, gratuitously at the Franciscan monastery, be-confirmed the institution of the Jesuits by his sides which there are 61 Christian convents bull; granted the most ample privileges to in Jerusalem; of these the Armenian is the largest. They are supported by voluntary contributions, principally from Europe. The church of the Holy Sepulchre has been for 1500 years the most sacred place in Jerusalem. It is composed of several churches united, and is said to be erected on Golgotha. Here is shown, in a large subterraneous apartment, richly ornamented, the pretended grave of the Saviour, with a sarcophagus of white marble. This church is reported to have been founded by the empress Helena, in the fourth century, after she had found the true cross. The Jews live in great wretchedness, and are confined to a small part of the city. The temple of the Mohammedans, which is regarded as one of their greatest sanctuaries, is magnificent. It consists of two large buildings, of which the one is adorned with a splendid dome and beautiful gilding. The other is octangular, and is called El Sahara. Here the Mohammedans show the footsteps of their prophet, surrounded with a golden grate, and a copy of the Koran, four feet long and two and a half broad. Every thing that meets the eye of the traveller furnishes him with an illustration of that prophecy," Jerusalem shall be trodden down of the Gentiles."

JESUITS, or the Society of Jesus; a famous religious order of the Romish church, founded by Ignatius Loyola, a Spanish knight, in the sixteenth century. The plan which this fanatic formed of its constitution and laws, was suggested, as he gave out, by the immediate inspiration of Heaven. But, notwithstanding this high pretension, his design met at first with violent opposition. The pope, to whom Loyola had applied for the sanction of his authority to confirm the institution, referred his petition to a committee of cardinals. They represented the establishment to be unnecessary as well as dangerous, and Paul refused to grant his approbation of it. At last, Loyola removed all his scruples, by an offer which it was impossible for any pope to resist. He proposed, that besides the three vows of poverty, of chastity, and of monastic obedience, which are common to all the orders of regulars, the members of his society should take a fourth vow of obedience to the pope, binding themselves to go whithersoever he should command for the service of religion, and without requiring any thing from the holy see for their support. At a time when the papal authority had received such a shock by the revolt of so many nations from the Romish church, at a time when every part of the popish system was attacked with so much violence and success, the acquisition of a body of men, thus peculiarly devoted to the see of Rome, and whom it might set in opposition to all its enemies, was an object of the highest

2. Jesuits, object of the order of. The primary object of almost all the monastic orders is to separate men from the world, and from any concern in its affairs. In the solitude and silence of the cloister, the monk is called to work out his salvation by extraordinary acts of mortification and piety. He is dead to the world, and ought not to mingle in its transactions. He can be of no benefit to mankind but by his example and by his prayers. On the contrary, the Jesuits are taught to consider themselves as formed for action. They are chosen soldiers, bound to exert themselves continually in the service of God, and of the pope, his vicar on earth. Whatever tends to instruct the ignorant, whatever can be of use to reclaim or oppose the enemies of the holy see, is their proper object. That they may have full leisure for this active service, they are totally exempted from those functions, the performance of which is the chief business of other monks. They appear in no processions; they practise no rigorous austerities; they do not consume one half of their time in the repetition of tedious offices; but they are required to attend to all the transactions of the world on account of the influence which these may have upon religion; they are directed to study the dispositions of persons in high rank, and to cultivate their friendship; and, by the very constitution and genius of the order, a spirit of action and intrigue is infused into all its members.

But

3. Jesuits, peculiarities of their policy and government.—Other orders are to be considered as voluntary associations, in which, whatever affects the whole body, is regulated by the common suffrage of all its members. Loyola, full of the ideas of implicit obedience, which he had derived from his military profession, appointed that the government of his order should be purely monarchical. A general chosen for life, by deputies from the several provinces, possessed power that was supreme and independent, extending to every person and to every case. To his commands they were required to yield not only outward

obedience, but to resign up to him the inclina- | zealous and able champions for its authority; tions of their own wills, and the sentiments they possessed, at different periods, the diof their own understandings. Such a singular rection of the most considerable courts in form of policy could not fail to impress its Europe; they mingled in all affairs, and character on all the members of the order, took part in every intrigue and revolution. and to give a peculiar force to all its opera- But while they thus advanced in power, they tions. There has not been, perhaps, in the increased also in wealth; various expedients annals of mankind, any example of such a were devised for eluding the obligation of the perfect despotism exercised, not over monks vow of poverty. Besides the sources of wealth shut up in the cells of a convent, but over common to all the regular clergy, the Jesuits men dispersed among all the nations of the possessed one which was peculiar to themearth. As the constitutions of the order vest selves.-Under the pretext of promoting the in the general such absolute dominion over success of their missions, and of facilitating all its members, they carefully provide for his the support of their missionaries, they obtainbeing perfectly informed with respect to the ed a special license from the court of Rome character and abilities of his subjects. Every to trade with the nations which they laboured novice who offers himself as a candidate for to convert : in consequence of this, they enentering into the order, is obliged to manifest gaged in an extensive and lucrative commerce, his conscience to the superior, or a person both in the East and West Indies; they opened appointed by him; and is required to confess warehouses in different parts of Europe, in not only his sins and defects, but to discover which they vended their commodities. Not the inclinations, the passions, and the bent of satisfied with trade alone, they imitated the the soul. This manifestation must be renewed example of other commercial societies, and every six months. Each member is directed aimed at obtaining settlements. They acquired to observe the words and actions of the no- possession accordingly, of the large and fertile vices, and is bound to disclose every thing of province of Paraguay, which stretches across importance concerning them to the superior. the southern continent of America, from the In order that this scrutiny into their character bottom of the mountains of Potosi to the conmay be as complete as possible, a long novi- fines of the Spanish and Portuguese settletiate must expire, during which they pass ments on the banks of the river de la Plata. through the several gradations of rank in the Here, indeed, it must be confessed, they were society; and they must have attained the full of service; they found the inhabitants in a age of thirty-three years before they can be state little different from that which takes admitted to take the final vows by which place among men when they first begin to they become professed members. By these unite together; strangers to the arts; subsistvarious methods, the superiors, under whose ing precariously by hunting or fishing; and immediate inspection the novices are placed, hardly acquainted with the first principles of acquire a thorough knowledge of their dispo- subordination and government.-The Jesuits sitions and talents; and the general, by ex- set themselves to instruct and civilize these amining the registers kept for this purpose, savages: they taught them to cultivate the is enabled to choose the instruments which ground, build houses, and brought them to his absolute power can employ in any service live together in villages, &c. They made for which he thinks meet to destine them. them taste the sweets of society, and trained them to arts and manufactures. Such was their power over them, that a few Jesuits presided over some hundred thousand Indians. But even in this meritorious effort of the Jesuits for the good of mankind, the genius and spirit of their order was discernible: they plainly aimed at establishing in Paraguay an independent empire, subject to the society alone, and which, by the superior excellence of its constitution and police, could scarcely have failed to extend its dominion over all the southern continent of America. With this view, in order to prevent the Spaniards or Portuguese in the adjacent settlements from acquiring any dangerous influence over the people within the limits of the province subject to the society, the Jesuits endeavoured to inspire the Indians with hatred and contempt of these nations; they cut off all intercourse between their subjects and the Spanish or Portuguese settlements. When they were obliged to admit any person in a public cha

4. Jesuits, progress of the power and influence of-As it was the professed intention of this order to labour with unwearied zeal in promoting the salvation of men, this engaged them, of course, in many active functions. From their first institution, they considered the education of youth as their peculiar province: they aimed at being spiritual guides and confessors; they preached frequently, in order to instruct the people; they set out as missionaries to convert unbelieving nations. Before the expiration of the sixteenth century, they had obtained the chief direction of the education of youth in every Catholic country in Europe. They had become the confessors of almost all its monarchs; a function of no small importance in any reign, but, under a weak prince, superior to that of minister. They were the spiritual guides of almost every person eminent for rank or power; they possessed the highest degree of confidence and interest with the papal court, as the most