numbers added. 948.664 Ans. To add together Decimal Fractions or Mixed Numbers. RULE.-Write the decimal or mixed numbers so that the same orders may stand under each other, placing units under units, tenths under tenths, hundredths under hundredths, etc. Begin at the right hand or lowest order, and proceed in all respects as in adding whole numbers. From the right hand of the amount, point off as many figures for decimals as are equal to the greatest number of decimal places in any one of the given numbers. PROOF.-Addition of Decimals is proved in the same manner as Simple Addition. The decimal point in the answer will always fall directly under the decimal points in the given numbers, if they are rightly arranged. 13. Add together 394-61; 81.928; 3624-8103; 640-203; 6291-302; 721-004; and 3920.304. 14. Add together 25 hundredths, 8 tenths, 65 thousandths, 16 hundredths, 142 thousandths, and 39 hundredths. 15. Add together 9 tenths, 92 hundredths, 162 thousandths, 489 thousandths, and 92 millionths. 16. Add together 45 thousandths, 1752 millionths, 624 ten millionths, and 24368 millionths. 17. Add together 29 hundredths, 7 millionths, 62 thousandths, and 12567 ten millionths. 18. Add together 95 thousandths, 61 millionths, 6 tenths, 11 hundredths, and 265 hundred thousandths. 19. Add together 1 tenth, 2 hundredths, 16 thousandths, 7 millionths, 26 thousandths, 95 ten millionths, and 7 ten thousandths. 20. Add together 96 hundred thousandths, 92 millionths, 25 hundredths, 45 thousandths, and 7 tenths. 21. Add together 85 thousandths, 17 hundredths, 36 ten thousandths, 58 millionths, 363 hundred thousandths, 185 millionths, and 673 ten thousandths. LESSONS IN GREEK.-No. L. BY JOHN R. BEard, D.D. THE PARTS OF A SIMPLE SENTENCE CONSIDERED SEPARATELY; THEIR AGREEMENT. Simple Sentences. IF, after these general explanations, we proceed to consider the particular parts of a simple sentence, we come first to the subject. The subject is commonly a noun or substantive, properly so called, since it is only of a substance or a reality that a statement may be made. But, instead of a substantive itself, we may have a representative of a substantive. A substantive may be represented by an adjective or participle, used substantively. A substantive may also be represented by an infinitive mood with the article; also the personal pronouns, or the demonstrative pronouns may be employed as subjects, instead of substantives. In short, any word or combination of words that have a substantive force, may stand as the subject of a proposition. Examples occur in the exercises. The employment of adjectives in the sense of substantives is more common in Greek than in English. Adjectives are used as nouns. 1. To denote persons either with or without the article. Thus, Eevos, foreign, may signify a foreigner and a guest; and Eevos, the guest; xalos, a handsome man; kaλn, a handsome woman; μwpoc, a fool; aoony, a male; Onλeia, a female; a participle may also have the force of a noun, as o palwv, he who has learnt, that is, the scholar; arooras (our apostate), he who has gone away from, that is a runaway. Less frequently is the neuter used to denote a person; thus, however, To appey, the man, is employed; and ro Onλu, the woman; To pilovμevov, the beloved object; such use is common when a class or a general the female sex; TO 'EXXnvicov, the Grecian people; To iπTIKOV, the idea is intended, thus ro appev, the male, the male sex; ro Oŋλu, cavalry, or cavalry; TO VEOV, youth; TO KраTIOтOV TOV σTраTEVμaros, the elite of the army. This employment of the adjective as a noun does not exclude the use of the noun together with copos, the sage, and copos avno, the wise man; i kaλn, the the adjective. Thus, sometimes avno and yuvn are added, e.g. beauty, and i kaλn yuvŋ, the beautiful woman. 2. The neuter of the adjective is often used to express tremity, the brink; To opalov, the plain; Ta exiladagola, the relation of space, as To μegov, the middle; ro taxarov, the exsea-coast; also to express relations of time, as I woλu, for a long while; e iwlivou, in the morning; moreover, to express the stuff or essence of which a thing consists, 38 το εν ανθρωποις Kakov, what is bad in man; a collective idea, equivalent to the τα ξηρα, τα ύγρα, the dry, the moist (bodies), το ξηρον, το ύγρον, qualities of man, man's inferior nature, sin, "the flesh;" aopales, security; To Baridikov, royalty; by the neuter the dryness (drought), moisture; ro ovYyEves, relationship; TO object in its most abstract form. Greeks thus expressed abstractions, that is, the quality of an Nouns which we use only in the singular, the Greeks employed in the plural, when repetition was intended. Thus, we speak of "the heat of summer," and "the cold of winter;" of good fortune and bad fortune; where the Greeks employ plural nouns; as Tvxn xeiμwvos каι Oαλяη Oɛρоvs. We also say of persons that they are wise in heart," but the Greeks, using the plural, said xpnoroi ras vxac, good in spirits, when they spoke of several persons; so also ήμεροι τους τρόπους, of a mild disposition; though the singular is also found, as ήδεις την οψιν, pleasant of visage. The Greeks used the plural when they wished to denote a substance divided into parts, e.g. vavπnynowa Euλa, literally ship-building woods, that is, planks or beams for ship-building; also to denote a body or object which consisted of more than one part, e.g. Ovpai, πvλai, doors, gates ("folding-doors") ; moreover, when they spoke of an object which, though singular in itself, conveyed the idea of plurality, as yaμot, marriages, that is, marriage-festivities; rapai, funeral rites; Ta EXEvoivia, the Eleusinian mysteries. The plural of proper names signified people of the kind, e.g. Odvoonis, diλiññOL, "the Ciceros," "the and in case. If, however, the attribute is a noun, then it may agree in case only, or in case and number. Γοργίαι. Δημοσθένεις, as we say, Sometimes the subject is not expressed by a separate word, as when the subject is a personal pronoun, e.g. yрapoμev, we write; or when the act declared in the predicate is of such a nature as to be referable only to a particular person, or to be implied in the verb itself; thus, with npvoow, I herald, proclaim, the word, kŋovë, herald, is omitted; and caλTIKTηs, trumpeter, with oaλwiуyw, I announce by the sound of a trumpet. The subject is also omitted with what are called impersonal (unipersonal) verbs, as vipu, it snows; ßpovrã, it thunders; aorparra, it lightens; Zevs, Jupiter, being, it is said, understood. The subject has sometimes to be learnt from the connexion, as in part, they affirm; Xeyovoi, they say; av@pwrоi, or something of the kind being implied. The force of the indefinite pronoun, some one, is given either by Tic, or by the form just mentioned, namely, Xeyovo, or impersonally by λeyerai, it is said; or personally, Xeyoua, I am said; or, again, by the second person singular optative active, with av, as painc av (dicas), you may say. If, however, it is intended to present the subject with any emphasis, then the subject, even if a pronoun, must be expressed. Consequently, when the personal pronoun is used, you may infer that emphasis is intended; thus, Tops; is simply what dost thou say? but ri de σv pyc; is, what dost thou say? As the subject, for instance the third person singular, he, is omitted, when reference is made to a subject, a proper name gone before, so in construing from Greek into English, you must supply the pronoun whether singular or plural, before every succeeding verb; instances occur in every Greek period and narrative. The Predicate and the Copula. The predicate, as expressive of a quality, may appear in the form of an adjective (the attribute), with or without a copula or it may blend with a verb, so as to present in one word the entire proposition or statement, e.g. Παράδειγμα ειμι εγώ Where rapadeyμa is of the neuter gender, while y is masculine or feminine. A subject in the neuter plural takes its verb in the singular, e.g. Εφα παντα θνητα πέφυκε All animals are naturally mortal. With personal nouns, however, the plural is used when the idea of plurality is made prominent; e.g. Τα μειρακια επήνεσαν τον λεγοντα The young men (individually) applauded the speaker. If the subject is a collective word, and if its parts rather than its totality are regarded, then, though singular in form, it will take a verb in the plural; e g. Τα στρατοπεδον ανεχώρουν The camp (the soldiers) returned. When the subject consists of two or more nouns, the verb is in the plural. The rule remains if both nouns are of the singular number. Though sometimes the verb agrees with the nearest noun, and is then in the singular. Ἡ μητηρ και ἡ θυγατηρ ήσαν καλαι If the subjects are of one gender, then the predicate must be of that same gender; but if the subjects are in part masculine and in part feminine, then the predicate must be masculine; if, again, the subject is in the neuter gender, or has reference to things, then the predicate is neuter. When subjects of several persons are united, the first person determines the person of the verb; if there is no first person, then the person of the verb is determined by the second person; any way the verb is in the plural. When the subject is a general idea, the predicate may be in the neuter singular, whatever the number or gender of the subject; e.g. Αε μεταβολαι λυπηρον Changes are a painful thing, Attrib. The disuse of the copula, as in ro podov kaλov, is more apparent than real. Occurring for the most part in the third person singular, it can take place only when it may be readily supplied from the words employed. It is, indeed, rather in the form than in the sense that the copula is ever dropped. Instead of an adjective you may have in the predicate an equivalent, that is, a pronoun, a noun used as an adjective, or participle. Concord of the Parts of a Sentence. The form of the subject has great influence on the form of the other parts of a sentence. The form of the subject determines the form of the copula. The form of the subject determines also the form of the attribute, when that attribute is an adjective. By these statements I mean that if the subject is in the first person, in the first person must the copula or verb be. The two must also be in the same number, and the attribute must agree with the subject in gender, in number, When a pronoun refers to a noun, it agrees with that noun, strative pronoun is put in the neuter gender. If the pronoun in gender, number, and case; though sometimes a demonis a personal pronoun, then the noun and the pronou agree also in person. The verbal adjectives in rog and rɛog when used, like the Latin gerund, impersonally, stand mostly in the neuter plural. If the predicate is a superlative, and is connected with a genitive, it takes its gender from the gender of the suct. The attribute is connected with the subject, 2 only by ɛival, but by other verbs which in themselves do no convey a complete idea. Such verbs are vжapxew, to exit; yivεoðaι, to become; puvai, to arise; avžaveodai, to grow; paivɛodai, to appear; кaλɛiodai, to be called; ovoμalɛobai, to be named; Xeyɛolar, to be said (dici). In a similar manner are employed αἱρεῖσθαι, to be chosen ; αποδεικνυσθαι, to be declared, or appointed, νομίζεσθαι, to be accounted, to be held for something or somebodg, etc. These verbs take the same case after as before them, and their predicates are sometimes substantives ; e.g. Κυρος εγενετο βασιλευς των Περσών, Cyrus became king of the Persians. EXERCISES.GREEK-ENGLISH. What is the gender, number, and case of the following. words, and why? ψυχη; ευδαίμων; καλον; θνητοι; μαχιμωτατον, αγαθοι, αιχμαλώτους γεγενημένους; ἧς; αύτη; τουτο (with θανατος), καλον (with ἡ ἀληθεια); στρατηγος; ασθενε στερον. What is the person and the number of the following verbs, and why? πεφυκεν ; θεραπευουσιν ; εβόων ; γραφομεν ; ειδετην ; ησπασαντο ; επιμεμνηνται ; εμαχέσαντο; αποκτενῶ ; επαινοῦμεν. Supply what is understood in these sentences: Ελλην εγω; θνητοι οἱ ανθρωποι; αδηλον το μέλλον. ENGLISH-GREEK. Six (persons) came. We two came. He and you are good. My father and I are good. Xenophon was chosen general. Those two men were chosen generals and they prepared to go against the enemy. I say that thou art bad. Thou (sayest so)? I say it. You are wise, not they. We are Greeks. Future things are uncertain. Man is mortal. My sister is mortal. My brothers and sisters are mortal. You and I are mortal. That is folly. To be sound minded is wisdom. The market and the whole city are filled. We and they write. He and I write. Democracy is not a good thing. The men, the women, the children have been prepared. Are riches a sign of happiness? Riches are not a sign of happiness. Ολιγοι εμφρονες πολλων αφρόνων φοβερώτεροι. Οργη φιλούντων ολιγον ισχύει χρόνον. Των κακῶν, φασι, πλείω εστι κατα τον βίον η των αγαθών. Η χώρα πολλα εχει ορεινα. Η γεωργια ψυχη τε χειμωνος και θαλπη θέρους εθίζει καρτερεῖν. Αἱ μεν ευτυχίαι τας κακιας συγκρύπτουσιν, αἱ δὲ δυσπραξίαι ταχέως καταφανεῖς ποιοῦσιν. Επει οἱ πολέμιοι ανηλθον, εκήρυξε | τοις Έλλησι παρασκευασασθαι. Τρεις ηλθον. Ο σοφος ευδαίμων εστιν. Οἱ παλαι ησαν ανδρεῖοι, Οἱ περὶ Μιλτιάδην καλως εμαχέσαντο. Το διδάσκειν καλόν εστιν. Το ει σύνδεσμος εστιν. Αποκτενώ σε συ δε; ουκ εγω σε αποκτενῶ, αλλ' ὁ της πόλεως νομος. Παντες επαινοῦμεν ὁ συ λέγεις. Σωκρατης αει ην εν τῳ φανερῳ· πρωΐ τε γαρ εις τους περιπάτους και τα γυμνασια | γει, και το λοιπον αει τῆς ἡμέρας ην όπου πλείστοις μέλλοι συνεσεσθαι. Αδηλον το μελλον. Θεων δυναμις μεγιστη. θνητοι οι ανθρωποι. Ελλην εγω. Ουχ οἷον τε ανευ δικαιοσυνης αγαθον πολιτην γενεσθαι. Κυρος βασιλευς ην πρῶτος των Περσών, Το των Περσων εθνος μαχιμωτατον και ανδρειότατον εφυ. Η θυγατηρ σου καλη εστι και αγαθη. Παρεπιδημια τις εστιν ὁ βιος. Τα δικαια και παντα, όσα αρετη πράττεται, καλα εστι και αγαθα. Τοσαδε εθνη μετα Αθηναίων εστράτευον. Φανερα ησαν και ίππων και ανθρωπων ίχνη πολλα. Τη φυλον αλλο η ανθρωποι θεους θεραπεύουσιν; Ο δήμος εις το θεατρον προελθοντες εβοων. Εγω και συ και εκεῖνος γραφομεν. Φιλιππος και Αλεξανδρος πολλα και θαυμαστα έργα απεδείξαντο. Present: sedere, to sit down Πελοπίδας και Επαμεινωνδας ανδρειότατοι ησαν. Ο ανηρ και Αἱ χορη LESSONS IN ITALIAN GRAMMAR.-No. XXXVI. XIII. Simple Tenses. seggendo, sitting down down Present. Compound Tenses. Past : avere seduto, to have sat down Past Gerund: avendo seduto, having sat down INDICATIVE MOOD. Sie'do or seggo, I sit down sede'mmo, we sat down ἡ γυνη αγαθοι ησαν. Ὡς είδε πατέρα τε και μητέρα και αδέλφους | Present Gerund : sedendo or και την έαυτου γυναῖκα αιχμαλωτους γεγενημένους, εδάκρυεν. Η αγορά και το Πρυτανείον Παρίῳ λιθῳ ησκημενα ην. Λιθοι Past Participle : sedito, sat τε και πλινθοι και ξυλα και κεραμος εῤῥιμενα ουδεν χρησιμα εστιν. Συ και εκείνος γράφετε. Ημεις και εκείνοι γραφομεν. Ουκ αγαθον πολυκοιρανία. Η μοναρχία κρατιστον. γιαι ικανον ευδαιμονιας σημείον εστιν. Ὡς είδε την αλληλους ἡ γυνη και ὁ Ἀβραδστης, ήσπάσαντο αλληλους. Τα μειρακια ταδε προς αλληλους διαλεγόμενοι θαμα επιμεμνηνται Σωκράτους. Εἶδον το παιδιον ἧς ερᾷ ὁ αδελφος. Δικαστοῦ αὕτη ἐστιν αρετη. Έστι δε τουτο τυραννις. Τούτο θάνατος ονομάζεται, λυσις και χωρισμος ψυχῆς από σώματος. Αύτη εστι πηγη και αρχη παντων των κακών. φθονος χαλεπώτατος εστε των νόσων. Ο ήλιος πάντων λαμπρότατος εστιν. Καλον ή αληθεια και μονιμον. Ασθενεστερον γυνη ανδρος. Κυρος ην βασιλευς. Αλκιβιάδης Sediva or sedea, I was sitting sederete, you will sit down γρεθη στρατηγος. Δια τουτων Φιλιππος ηύξήθη μεγας. Τα πραγματα ουτω πεφυκεν. VOCABULARY, QUESTIONS, ETC. Παρασκευάζω, Ιmake ready; mid, I pack up baggage, I prepare for battle (παρα and σκευη, preparation, σκευος, a prepared thing, an instrument, a utensil). Συνδεσμος, ου, o, a chain, a binding, a conjunction, το ει, the particle ει. Οἷος τε, I am able ; ουχ οἷον τε, it is not possible. Φυω, I beget, φύναι, to arise, to be simply; τα πραγ. οὕτω πεφυκεν, things are in this condition. Παρεπιδημια (παρα, from; επιδημια, a tarrying), a sojourn, dwelling away from home. Ίχνος, εος, το, a trace, footstep, vestige. Πρυτανεῖον, ου, τo, the Prytaneum, a public edifce where foreign envoys and distinguished citizens received hospitality at Athens, at the public expense. Κεραμος, ου, ὁ (έρα, earth), earthenware, pottery. down sede'te, you sit down sie dono or seggono, they sit down Imperfect. Future. Sederò or sedrò, I shall or will sit down sederdi, thou wilt sit down sederà, he will sit down sedere mo, we will sit down sederanno, they will sit down Conditional Present. Sederci, sedrei, or sederia I should or would sit down sedere'sti, thou wouldst sit down sederebbe, he would sit down sedere mmo, we would sit down sedere'ste, you would sit down sederebbero, they would sit down IMPERATIVE MOOD. sediamo or seggiamo, let us sit down Present: solére, to be accus- | Present Gerund: solendo, being taccia or tácia, let him be silent [No Past Participle.] tace'te, be silent (ye or you) tácciano or táciano, let them be silent Táci, be silent (thou) tacciámo, let us be silent panciuto, big-bellied preláto, a prelate Ottenere, to obtain VOCABULARY. volta, a vault, a road, a turning; alla volta di, on the road to, towards Fiorenza, Florence vedere, to see provisióne, provision necessário,-a, necessary tre, three cosa, a thing vi, to you dandro, a coin; pl. money li, gli, to him, him dare, to give astenérsi, to abstain se stesso, himself perdonáre, to pardon, spare EXERCISES. Andando un grosso e panciúto prelato alla volta di Fiorenza, e vedéndo avvicinarsi la notte, domandò ad un contadino, che incontrò per strada, se potrébbe ancór entrár alla porta della città? A cui il villáno rispose: Poichè un carro di fiéno ci entra, come non entrarébbe vossignoría illustríssima ? Voléndo Ludovico duodécimo móver guerra contro il duca di Milano, domandò a Giácomo Trivúlzio, sperimentáto capitáno, qual provisióne era maggiormente necessária? A cui il Trivúlzio rispose: tre cose vi sono molto nessárie: danári, danári, et ancóra danári. Un sartóre era tanto avvézzo di rubár il panno di coloro che il dávano a far vestiti, che non poteva astenérsene, nè anche quando lavoráva per se stesso. Perciò la moglie gli domandò perchè lo facesse? Alla quale egli rispose; io ho tanta paúra di pérder una si lodévole usanza, che non me la perdóno nè anche a me stesso. THE Spanish Alphabet contains twenty-eight characters or letters; a, b, c, ch, d, e, f, g, h, i, j, k, l, l, m, n, ñ, o, p, q, r, s, t, u, v, x, y, z. Of these letters, a, e, i, o, u, are always vowels; y is also a vowel when it ends a syllable or word, or when it stands alone: the other letters are consonants, as also y when it begins a syllable or word. The consonants are divided into semi-vowels and mutes; the semi-vowels being f, h, l, l, m, n, ñ, r, s, x; and the mutes, b, c, ch, d, g, j, k, p, q t, v, z. SOUND OF THE SIMPLE VOWELS. A, in Spanish, has the sound of a in the English word far. This sound it retains in every position, not varying as in the English words fare, fat, far, fall, swallow, many, courage, mustard, in no two of which the a has precisely the same sound. E has the sound of a in made, or e in they. I has the sound of ee in see, or i in machine. Y, when a vowel, has the same sound. O has the sound of o in go. U has the sound of oo in mood, or u in rude. SOUND OF THE CONSONANTS. B, F, K, L, M, N, P, sound as in English. C, before a, o, or u, or before a consonant, sounds like k; that is, like c in the English word cart; as, carne, poco, cuna, creo; pronounced kar'-ney, pó-ko, koó-nah, krayo. C, before e or i, sounds like th in the English word think; as, cecina, cima; pronounced thay-thee-nah, theé-mah. CH is considered as one letter in Spanish, and is always sounded like ch in the English word church; as, noche, chapa; pronounced nó-chay, chah'-pah. D has not exactly the same sound in Spanish that it has in English. In the latter it is formed by the tongue touching the roof of the mouth: in Spanish the end of the tongue strikes the upper teeth; it has then a sound nearly like th in the English words than, those. A person can hardly fail to utter the Spanish sound of the d, if he pronounce it as here explained, by applying the tongue to the lower part of the upper teeth, instead of to the roof of the mouth. G, before a, o, u, or a consonant, sounds hard, as in the English words gate, go, goose, grow; as, goce, greba, gula; pronounced gó-thay, gray-bah, goo'lah. GU, in the syllables gue and gui, unless there be a diæresis |
