int gas the power of polarising light by VAT 19% 6. WII the same completeness, nor at the Marble, for instance, completely * de foton e aut con mon glass only polarise base that ́ind have the bullest polarising

of the language to be learnt must be exhibited, cramine, mi MASTERED.

2. An Alphabet is a collection of different character led letters, each of which represents its own peculiar sout These letters differ from each other in name, form, az und sound. Used as vehicles of thought, they must not my de familiar to the eye, but their use, both singly and continet, must be understood.

3. Two objects are to be before the student whilst perusing these lessons book, viz. :—

various sounds of the letters of the French Alphabet
First. The acquisition of the correct pronunciation of the

Secondly. To learn how to combine and use these sounds, in order to read the French Language easily, intelligitly, and profitably.

kuga med Pinan sý Polaristum.—The angle of polarisation of animalda s theyve wives the incident ray must make ach your as surface of this substance, in order tha atassad may may be polaried as completely as mgi w 379 15', for glass, 35° 25', wer we for send 22%, and 33° 30′ for obsician, khem, wunki polarises light very well. Les given te tollowing remarkably A tale with it the ways of polarisation : "The angle of Jandals Athe wok big st incidence for which the reflected W the relates say," But this definition 4. The first object will be accomplished by the aid of analog va wowght thoud by double refracting English sounds; that is, every sound represented by a letter or Apokation by reflection, the plane of reflection combination of letters of the French Alphabet, will be wank The syket, de pinned is called the plane of polari. unfolded, analyzed and defined, as far as possible, by means The piss wincides with the plane of incidence, and of analogous sounds of a letter or continuation of letters of the L aqua) y Gobboine the angle of polarisation. It is in this English Alphabet. waxy with me be once reflected cannot be 6. The second object will be accomplished by learning a few this mugle of polarisation, in a plane per-brief and simple Rules, illustrated and enforced by appropriate It is also in this plane that it is not examples. 6. Diligent attention, patient labour, and A DETERMINATION kka turmalin whose axis is parallel to that Many rey, Bundtore, that is polarised by refraction TO SUCCEED, will enable the learner to overcome every ast povratom, tổ at is to kay, a plane in which it obstacle, and thus make him master of a Language not only exceedingly difficult for foreigners to acquire, but beautiful in itself, and coexistent with the triumphs of civilisation. 7. The student's attention is next directed to an inspection of the French Alphabet.

*#wine the ntioned,

Byten cqueline by komple fraction, When a ray of light which vant provenand in at the angle of polarisation upon a plate MY *** win genewbie) fures, it is only reflected in part, the

* pat grew through the plate and is refracted, and the cand teseminated in partially polarised in a plane perpenmed to the plans of reflection, and consequently to the prvom of polmonition of the light which has been polarised by Arago observed, also, that the reflected and the #fracted pencils contained an equal quantity of polarised light, and that the reunion of these two pencils produces natural light. We may therefore regard ordinary light as formed of two equal pencils, polarised at right angles. As a mingle plate of glass never completely polarises light, we inay sniploy several, one upon the other, and their successive effections and refractions will give a more complete result. Classen no placed are called piles, and are often employed to obtain a pencil of polarised light,

right, which is the

English Alphabet,

and carefully note

r

the difference be

tween them.

n

0

Polarisation by Double Refraction, --Light is polarised by double yofraction when it passes through a crystal of Iceland spar or any other double refracting substance, The two pencils, which are distinet on emerging, are both polarised completely, but in different planes, which are perfectly or nearly perpendicular to each other. To prove this, we look through a parallelopiped of Iceland spar at a black spot on a sheet of white paper. To the naked eye there appear two images with the same brightness, but if we interpose a plate of urmalin and turn it about in its own plane, each image will disappear and reappear twice for each revolution of the turmalin, which shows that the two emerging rays are polarised in planes perpendicular to each other. The ordinary image vanishes at the moment when the axis of the turmalin is parallel to the principal section of the surface of incidence, and the extraordinary image at the moment when this axis is perpen-it has no letter which corresponds to the English W In the French Alphabet there are only twenty-fre letten; dicular to the same section; whence we infer that the ordinary it is occasionally found in French books. It is used at pencil is polarised in the plane of the principal section, and the extraordinary pencil in a plane perpendicular to that foreign words, and then pronounced like the English V neotion, 8. The French Alphabet is divided into Vows and Cas

LESSONS IN FRENCH PRONUNCIATION.—No. I.
ALPHABET OF THE FRENCH LANGUAGE.

1. A tolerable Pronunciation of any spoken language may be
acquired by imitating the sounds of that langway, as uttered by
But the READING and WRITING of any
A living teacher.
language cannot thus be learnt. The puril n.ust bring into
requisition something else besides his imitatice powers, if he
would thoroughly comprehend ny language. The alphabet

Y

Z

The following ten combinations of THREE SUCCESSIVE VOWELS illustrate the above remarks. are also called Diphthongs, viz. :—

Sometimes, also, we find FOUR SUCCESSIVE VOWELS in the Lé-gère-ment same word, viz. :—

ouan and ouin. U, viz. :—

The sounds of these liquids are very common in the French à is a Preposition, a is a Verb, lù is an Adverb, la is an Article, language, and will be explained hereafter,

25.

This character, which represents the Circumflex | words commencing with a vowel or H mute, and is much accent, is the union of the Acute and Grave accents, and is used in the French language, viz. :— placed over each of the Vowels except Y. It indicates that the letter over which it is placed, has a sound twice as long as it has without it, viz. :

L'ami instead of Le ami.
L'église
L'homme
S'il

La église.

Le homme.

" Si il.

LESSONS IN MORAL SCIENCE.-No. I.
CONSCIENCE, OR THE MORAL FACULTY.

As all men, when reason is developed, have a faculty by
which they can discern a difference between objects of sight
which are beautiful and those which are deformed, so all men
possess the power of discerning a difference between actions,
as to their moral quality. The judgment thus formed is imme
diate, and has no relation to the usefulness or injuriousness to
human happiness, of the objects contemplated,

Whatever difference of opinion may exist respecting the origin of this faculty, it is universally admitted that men, in all ages and countries, have judged some actions to be good and deserving of approbation, while they have judged others to be bad and of ill desert.

In all languages, we find words expressive of the ideas of moral excellence, and moral evil. In the laws and penalties established in all ages throughout the world, it is evidently implied that some actions ought to be done, and others avoided.

The Hyphen is a short horizontal mark, which is used to In cases of flagrant injustice or ingratitude, all men, of every connect words and syllables, viz. :

A-t-il, Belles-Lettres, Celui-ci, Demi-kilomètre,
Fait-on, Suis-je, and Très-rarement.

Its use in connecting syllables is precisely the same as in the English language; that is, when a word is divided, so that a part of it is at the extreme right-hand of a page, and the rest at the extreme left.

29. APOSTROPHE.

'The APOSTROHE is like a comma placed at the upper end of letters, instead of at the lower end, or at the bottom on a line with the lower end.

Its use is, to show the elision or cutting off a vowel before

country and of every age, agree in their judgment of their moral evil. There is, in regard to such actions, no more difference in the judgment of men, than respecting the colour of grass, or the taste of honey. If any man does not perceive grass to be green, or honey to be sweet, we do not thence conclude that men's bodily senses are not similarly constituted, but that the organs of the individual who does not see and taste as other men do, are defective, or depraved by disease.

To determine whether all men have one original moral faculty, the case proposed for their moral judgment should be simply good or evil. For a complex act, in which there is something good and something evil, or rather where there must be an accurate weighing of motives in order to ascertain the quality of the action, is not a proper test as to the exist ence of a uniformity of moral judgment in men. Therefore,

the historical fact adduced by Dr. Paley, from the history of Valerius Maximus, is not at all suited to his purpose; because the case is very complex, and one on which it is difficult to determine at first view, what the true moral character of the action is. The facts, as related by him, are as follows: The father of Caius Toranius had been proscribed by the Triumvirate. Caius Toranius-coming over to the interests of that party-discovered his father's place of concealment to the officers who were in pursuit of him, and gave them, withal, a description of his person by which they might distinguish him. The old man, more anxious for the safety and fortunes of his son than for the little that might remain of his own life, began immediately to inquire of the officers whether his son were well, and whether he had done his duty to the satisfaction of the generals. That son (replied one of the officers), so dear to thy affections, has betrayed thee to us; by his information thou art apprehended, and diest.' With this, the officer struck a poniard to his heart, and the unhappy parent fell, affected not so much by his fate, as by the means to which he owed it." Now, the question is, if this story were related to the wild boy caught some years ago in the woods of Hanover, or to a savage without experience and without instruction, cut off in his infancy from all intercourse with his species, and consequently under no possible influence of example, authority, education, sympathy, or habit, whether or not such a one would feel upon the relation any degree of that sentiment of disapprobation of Toranius's conduct which we feel.

good parent. If a case like this were presented to a thousand persons, from as many different parts of the world, there would be but one judgment and one feeling; all would judge the conduct of the son to be blameable. Different degrees o moral disapprobation would be felt by those whose moral faculty was in a cultivated state; but there would be no difference in the opinion entertained of his conduct. All would feel disapprobation, accompanied by a desire for the punishment of the offender. It is found that savages appear to have but an obscure exercise of conscience, but in proportion as their minds are cultivated, this faculty becomes more manifest, and operates more forcibly.

If

THE MORAL FACULTY, ORIGINAL AND UNIVERSAL. If conscience were not an original faculty, enabling us to formn a conception of moral qualities, man could never acquire such an idea by any other means. The opinion, therefore, that moral feelings are merely the effect of instruction and education, is erroneous. For every class of simple ideas there must be an appropriate faculty, without which these ideas can never be acquired. In regard to the bodily senses, this is too evident to be called in question. Without the organ of vision, the simple idea of light and colours could never be communicated by any instructions; without the organ of hearing, no idea of sound can be conveyed; and so of the other senses. And it is equally true of that knowledge which is acquired by what some have called the internal senses. In our judgment, such a case would afford no criterion by there were in man no such faculty as taste, by which beauty which to determine whether men possess constitutionally a is perceived, no idea of the beautiful could possibly be commoral sense. For, in the first place, the trial would be no better municated. A horse has no perception of the beauty of a than if the question were proposed to a child two years old, scene which perhaps enchants his rider, even though the aniin whose mind the moral faculty is not yet developed. A mal sees all the objects with equal distinctness. So it is in human being, arrived at adult age without instruction or com- regard to moral qualities. There must be an original faculty munication with others, would be-as it regards to the mind-to give us the simple idea which we have of morality; otherin a state differing very little from that of infancy. It is not wise the idea of virtue or vice could never have entered the held that the moral sense will be exercised without the usual human mind, and the feelings of moral obligation, of which means by which human faculties are developed. If an all men are conscious, would never have been felt. organical defect in the brain should prevent the intellectual faculties from coming into exercise, the unhappy individual | thus deprived of reason would prove nothing in regard to the operations of reason where it is developed. So, also, if a human being were brought up from early infancy in a dark dungeon, and if no information were communicated to him, the mental faculties would not be developed, and it would be absurd to have recourse to such a one to ascertain what faculties belong to the human mind. The same remark will apply to the case of the wild boy, referred to by Dr. Paley; and also, though in an inferior degree, to savages of the most degraded class.

We are aware that those who advocate the utilitarian scheme, resolve all our ideas of morality and moral obligation into the mere principles of benefit or injury, apprehended to be connected with each action. Dr. Paley informs us, that the subject continued to be involved in impenetrable mystery, until he took this view of it.

It is deemed useless to argue this point; it cannot be decided by reasoning. The appeal must be made to the consciousness of every man.

If any one persists in declaring that he sees no evil in any action but as it is evidently detrimental to human happiness, nothing can be said in the way of argument to alter convicLet it then be fairly understood what it is which is asserted tions derived from his own consciousness. All that is proper in regard to conscience, as an original, universal faculty. It to be said is, that the mind of such a person is differently is, that every human mind, when its faculties have been constituted from that of most men; cr rather that an impartial developed, and have arrived at some degree of maturity, dis-examination of this subject has not been made. It is recomcerns a quality in certain actions which is termed moral; that mended to such persons carefully to scrutinise the exercises of is, it intuitively perceives that some actions are right and their own minds; they will perceive that the idea of virtue or moral good is entirely distinct from that of mere utility. There is, indeed, a connexion between these two things which is very intimate, and this seems to have misled many in their judgments. Virtuous conduct leads to happiness, and is always beneficial; yet our idea of its moral character is not derived from this consideration, but from the nature of the action itself.

some wrong.

Another objection to the historical fact adduced by Dr. Paley, is, that it presents to the mind, not a case of simple, unmixed good or evil, but a complex case, in which-before a judgment can be formed of the action of the son-it must be decided whether a man ought to be governed by a regard to the welfare of a parent, or to the public good. If the son believed that the party in pursuit of his father was promoting the public good, he might feel that he ought to be governed by this rather than by filial affection. Here, then, we have presented a complex and difficult case in morals, about which men would be very apt to differ; and we are to determine whether all men-even those totally uneducated-would view it in the same light.

A MORAL FACULTY BEING SUPPOSED, WHETHER

ITS DICTATES ARE UNIFORM? One of the strongest objections which has been brought against the doctrine laid down is, that among men of different countries, and of entirely different education, there is no To render the case a suitable one to be a test of the question immorality of the same actions. Whereas, it is alleged, that agreement in their judgments respecting the morality or under consideration, it should be supposed that the father was acting in conformity with the strictest principles of recti- if such a faculty were originally a part of man's constitution, tude; that his life was sought by wicked men, aiming not at there would as certainly be uniformity, as in the perception of Now, if the dictates of conthe good of the commonwealth but its destruction; and that objects by the external senses, science in men of different countries do so much differ, does it the son, in betraying the place of his concealment, was actuated not show that the moral feelings of men are just what educaby mercenary motives, or by unjust and unnatural dislike to ation makes them? And what is gained by maintaining the existence of a moral faculty, as part of man's original consti

In the chapter of his Moral Philosophy, under the head "The Moral

tution?

It will, we think, be admitted, that in all countries and conditions in which men have been found, there exists a perception of a difference in the moral character of actions; that is, some things are accounted wrong, which ought not to be done, and some right which ought to be done.

fundamental truths, there has never been any difference of opinion. It is not meant that all men distinctly think of these primary truths in morals; for many are so inattentive, or so much occupied with sensible objects, that they can scarcely be said ever to reflect on the subject of moral duty. Again, it has never been pretended as being a matter of But let an act of manifest injustice be performed before their fact, that between men of different countries there is a total eyes, and among a thousand spectators there will be but one difference in the opinions entertained respecting what is right opinion, and but one feeling. If a strong man, for example, and what is wrong. A few cases only of difference are alleged, violently takes away the property of one weaker than himself, in which this discrepancy is observed; but in regard to those and for no other reason than because he covets it, all men will actions which are reckoned good or evil, there is a general condemn the act. So, if any one who has received from agreement. As to those in which there seems to be a funda-another great benefits, not only refuses to make any grateful mental difference, an explanation will be given hereafter. No return, but, on the contrary, returns evil for good, all men will nation, or tribe, or class of mankind has ever held that it is a agree in judging his conduct to be wrong. All intuitively virtuous and proper thing to do injury to men, or that there is discern that for a ruler to punish the innocent and spare the no more harm in taking away life than in preserving it. It guilty, is morally wrong. It is not true, in fact, that there is has never been held that ingratitude-though everywhere no agreement among men as to the fundamental principles of common in practice-is a commendable thing; or that deceit morals. Their judgments on these points are as uniform as and fraud are as praiseworthy as honesty and fair dealing. on the axioms of mathematics; as in their agreement that the There is in every country a difference made in the estima-starry firmament is grand and beautiful; yea, as uniform as tion of the character of men, derived from the course of their concerning the greenness of the grass, or the varied colours of conduct. Some men are reckoned good in the public estima- the rainbow. tion, while others are considered wicked; the former obtain esteem, the latter are despised. That course of conduct which secures a good reputation, does not in any country consist of actions which we consider wicked, but of actions which in all countries are considered praiseworthy; and men have never obtained a bad character by a course of good behaviour.

It is also important to observe, that the conduct of a people is not a fair test of the internal state of the mind, as it relates to morals. We know that individuals often pursue a course of conduct, which in their serious moments they condemn. Yet the power of temptation, and the habit of indulgence are such, that notwithstanding the convictions of conscience, they continue in a course of evil-doing. It would be a very inconclusive inference to determine from their habitual conduct, that they acted in accordance with the dictates of conscience. And what is true of individuals, may be true of nations and tribes. Those customs which they have received from their forefathers, may not meet with the approbation of their moral sense, and yet such is the force of an established custom, that they go on in the way in which they were brought up.

But a more satisfactory explanation of those facts, in which men seem conscientiously to go contrary to the fundamental principles of morals, is, that the principle on which they act is correct, but through ignorance or error they make an erroneous application of it.

When parents murder their own female children-a thing very customary in China-it is on the principle that they will be subject to more misery than happiness in the world; and therefore it is doing them a favour. Here, the general principle is correct-that parents should consult the best interests of their offspring-but the mistake is in the application. The same may be said of the practice of exposing aged parents, when they become incapable of enjoying the world.

As to those acts of cruelty which the Pagans perform in their religious services (the wife committing herself to the flames with the body of her deceased husband, children voluntarily thrown into the Ganges, or persons devoting their own lives by falling under the car of Juggernaut), they are performed on the principle that what God requires, or what pleases him, or what will secure happiness for ourselves or friends, should be done. It is true that the will of God should be obeyed, whatever sacrifice he may require; their error is in thinking that such sacrifices are required by Him. HOW FAR ALL MEN ARE AGREED IN THEIR MORAL JUDGMENTS.

As the subject of morals is very extensive, and particular cases may be complicated, and as men are not only ignorant, but prejudiced by the errors received in their education, it is no more wonderful that they should adopt different opinions on these subjects than on other matters. That, however, which is true in regard to every department of human know

Mr. Locke, in his zeal to disprove the existence of innate truths, attempts to render uncertain some of these first truths of morals.

When we go beyond these first principles, we may expect to find men falling into grievous error respecting moral duty; and this often appears in their application of general principles to particular cases. Most men either do not reason at all, or reason badly, and draw from sound principles incorrect conclusions. For the most part, they receive implicitly what they have been taught; or they are governed in their opinions by the common sentiment; or they adopt as true what is most for their interest, or most agreeable to their feelings. And as men are often under the influence of feelings or passions which produce perturbation of mind, and so bias the judgment, it is easy to see how errors of judgment respecting moral conduct, in many cases, may spring up. And yet it is true, that there are primary truths in morals, in which all men agree, so soon as they are presented to the mind. As in other cases, by pursuing a course of sophistical reasonings, conclusions may be arrived at which are contradictory to these first principles, and this will produce perplexity; or even a kind of speculative assent may be yielded to such conclusions of ratiocina tion; but whenever it is necessary to form a practical judgment, the belief of intuitive truths must prevail. Our assent in these cases is not a matter of choice, but of necessity. Bishop Berkeley thought he had demonstrated that there was no external world; and many others thought there was no flaw in his reasoning: but all these speculative sceptics were. nevertheless, practical believers in the real existence of external objects. Atheistical and infidel philosophers have often endeavoured to prove that there is no intrinsic difference between right and wrong, and some of them probably persuaded themselves that this opinion was true; but these very men, when an act of great injustice towards themselves or friends was committed, could not but feel that it was morally evil; and when they saw an act of disinterested benevolence performed, they could not but approve it as morally good,

LESSONS IN ALGEBRA.-No. XXI.
(Continued from page 391.)

POWERS OF ROOTS.

IN the preceding examples of roots, the numerator of the
fractional index has been a unit. There is another class of
quantities, the numerators of whose indices are greater
either as powers of roots, or roots of powers.
than 1, asb, C etc.
"
These quantities may be considered

N.B. In all instances, when the root of a quantity is ledge, is doubtless true in regard to the science of morals. denoted by a fractional index, the denominator, like the figure There are certain self-evident truths, which are intuitively over the radical sign, expresses the root, and the numerator perceived by every one who has the exercise of reason, as soon as they are presented to the mind. In regard to these the power. Thus, a denotes the cube root of the first power